PSYCHOLOGY – SSC 210

Lahore School of Economics

Hirra Rana
Cognition, Language, and Intelligence
Conceptualizing Cognition
Thinking
The manipulation of mental representations of
information.

Cognition (thinking) refers to processing a

mental representation(mental expression) of a
problem or situation (Sternberg, 2011).
Experiential processing
Thought that is passive, effortless, and
automatic.

Reflective processing
Thought that is active , effortful, and controlled.
Mental images
Representations in the mind of an object or
event.
concepts A mental grouping of similar
objects, events, or people.

prototypes
Typical, highly representative examples of a
concept.
Syllogistic reasoning
Formal reasoning in which people draw a
conclusion from a set of assumptions.
Algorithm
A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution
to a problem.

For example, you may know that you can find the length
of the third side of a right triangle by using the formula a
2 1 b 2 5 c 2 , although you may not have the foggiest
notion of the mathematical
principles behind the formula.

Heuristic
A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a
problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may
sometimes lead to errors.
• Heuristics increase the likelihood of success in
coming to a solution, but, unlike algorithms,
they cannot ensure it ,For Example:

Some students follow the heuristic of preparing

for a test by ignoring the assigned textbook
reading and only studying their lecture notes—a
strategy that may or may not pay off.
 Problem Solving
Means-ends analysis
Involves repeated tests for differences between
the desired outcome and what currently exists.

In a means-end analysis, each step brings the

problem solver closer to a resolution.

For example, according to some estimates, there

are some 101 possible sequences of chess moves
(Fine & Fine, 2003).
divergent thinking
The ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless
appropriate, responses to problems or
questions.

convergent thinking
The ability to produce responses that are based
primarily on knowledge and logic.
Cognition, Language, and Intelligence (contd.)
Language & Intelligence
 Language

The use of language —the communication

of information through symbols arranged
according to systematic rules.
The basic structure of language rests on
grammar, the system of rules that determine
how our thoughts can be expressed.

Grammar deals with three major components

of language: phonology, syntax, and semantics
(Hardison,2006).
1. Phonology The study of the smallest units of
speech, called phonemes.

2. Syntax Ways in which words and phrases can

be combined to form sentences.

3. Semantics The rules governing the meaning

of words and sentences.
Learning-theory approach
(to language development)
The theory that language acquisition follows the
principles of reinforcement and conditioning.

For example, a child who says “mama” receives hugs and

praise from her mother, which reinforce the behavior of
saying “mama” and make its repetition more likely.

This view suggests that children first learn to speak by

being rewarded for making sounds that approximate
speech
(Skinner,1957; Ornat&Gallo,2004).
• Nativist approach (to language development) The theory
that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs
language development. (Chomsky,1991).

• According to his nativist approach to language, all the

world’s languages share a common underlying structure
called a universal grammar

• Chomsky suggested that the human brain has a neural

system, the language-acquisition device that not only lets
us understand the structure language provides, but also
gives us strategies and techniques for learning the unique
our native language (McGilvray,2004;Lidz&Gleitman,2004;
White, 2007).
Intelligence
The capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively when
faced with challenges.
Crystallized intelligence
The accumulation of information, skills, and
strategies that are learned through experience and
can be applied in problem-solving situations.

• It reflects our ability to call up information from

long-term memory. We would be likely to rely on
crystallized intelligence

• For instance, if we were asked to participate in a

discussion about the solution to the causes of
poverty,
Theory of multiple intelligences
Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes that
there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence
(Gardner, 2000).

 Gardner argues that we have a minimum eight

different forms of intelligence, each relatively
independent of the others: musical, bodily
kinesthetic, logical mathematical , linguistic,
spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalist.
The Biological Basis of Intelligence

Practical intelligence According to Sternberg,

intelligence related to overall success in living.

Your response to a practical situation has a lot to

do with your future success in a business career,
according to psychologist (Sternberg,2000).
Emotional intelligence:

The set of skills that underlie the accurate

assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation
of emotions (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).

Emotional intelligence is the basis of empathy for

others, self-awareness, and social skills. It
encompasses the ability to get along well with
others.
Intelligence tests
Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of
intelligence.

The first real intelligence tests were developed

by the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–
1911).
 Measuring Intelligence
• Tests of Intelligence

 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Revised (WAIS-R)
Mental age
The age for which a given level of performance
is average or typical.

Intelligence quotient (IQ) A score that takes into

account an individual’s mental and chronological
ages.
 Extremes in Intelligence
• IQ testing provides criteria for diagnosing mental retardation
• MR: low IQ (<70) that causes serious deficits in the skills
needed for everyday living
• Mild MR: 50 to 70
• Moderate MR: 35 to 49
• Severely MR: 20 to 34
• Profound MR: less than 20
 Causes of Mental Retardation
• Genetic disorders
• Birth trauma
• Maternal infections
• Maternal use of alcohol
• Sensory or maternal deprivation early in life
 Gifted Children
• Gifted Children: have a high IQ and high level of creativity
• Programs for gifted children in school systems built on two
grounds:
1. Nation needs to enrich education of its brightest leaders
2. These children are so bright they sometimes need help to
avoid developing psychological problems