DC Generator: Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
DC GENERATOR
Page No: 1 Subject Code AAB10403/AKD10203

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Issue Date: 30 August 2006
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BASIC GENERATOR THEORY

1. Generator – is an electrical machine that convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy

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BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

2. Faraday’s Law –
When a conductor cuts a magnetic field an emf is induced into the conductor.
The magnitude of the emf induced depends on :

a. B – the flux density of the magnetic field (Tesla) or field strength
b. l – the length of the conductor in the field (metres) or number of turns
c. v – the velocity of the conductor (metres/sec) moving through the field or
speed of cutting
Note : e = Blv
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GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
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Current going IN Current going OUT
PRODUCTION OF A SINE WAVE

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3. Operation :
a. Positions 1 and 5 the conductor is moving along the flux lines and no
cutting takes place and no emf is induced
b. Positions 3 and 7 maximum cutting taking place and maximum emf is
induced
c. Other positions an emf is induced depending on the angle of cutting of the
flux
d. Emf induced at 2, 3 and 4 is opposite to that at 6, 7 and 8 i.e. this is an
alternating emf (a.c.) and is therefore the basis of the ac generator

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Basic Simple Generator Produce Alternating Current (A.C.)

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4. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule - CAA
To find the direction of the induced emf/ current when a conductor cuts a
magnetic field
a. First finger – direction of magnetic field

from north to south
b. Second finger – direction of current flow
in or out of a conductor
(conventional flow)
c. Thumb – direction of conductor movement

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DC GENERATOR
5. Simple DC Generator

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DC GENERATOR - cont
Operation :
- To convert AC inside the
armature to DC to the
external circuit via carbon
brush is by using an
automatic switching
known as a commutator.
- Stationary brushes rest
on the commutator
surface by spring tension.

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The commutator is designed so that, no matter how the current in the loop alternates,
the commutator segment containing the outward-going current is always against the
"out" brush at the proper time.
The armature in a large DC generator has many coils of wire and commutator
segments.
Because of the commutator, engineers have found it necessary to have the armature
serves as the rotor and the field structure as the stator.

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DC GENERATOR - cont
6. Single Loop DC Generator
a – two segments of commutator
approaching the point of maximum
induced emf with current flowing in the
load

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DC GENERATOR - cont
b – the segments approaching the point of zero
emf and approaching the brushes at the point
of changeover from one commutator segment
to the next

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DC GENERATOR - cont
c – the changeover has occurred and the lower
brush is now in contact with segment 1 and not
segment 2 as it was prior to the changeover
Note :
i - The commutator ensures that whichever
conductor is passing the North pole (N) it is always
Negative (-) and conductor passing the South pole
(S) is positive (+)
ii - The current through the load remains in the

same direction i.e. DC output

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DC GENERATOR - cont
Action of commutator segment

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DC GENERATOR - cont
Action of commutator :
- which allows current to
flow to the load in one
direction only i.e. DC

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Need of a Split Ring / Commutator: DC GENERATOR - cont

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According to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction of induced current

changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving
upward.
When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that
particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current
in every armature conductor will be alternating.
If you look at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced
current is alternating in an armature conductor.
But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets
reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional
current at the terminals.

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DC GENERATOR - cont
Single loop, two segments commutator:
- The output from commutator segment is DC but the current is not constant i.e. twice
per revolution and also at a maximum value, twice per revolution – pulsating DC. The
fluctuating current (and voltage) is called ripple.

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DC GENERATOR - cont
- to generate smoother output, the practical generator must have many more
coils rotating in a magnetic field i.e.
 more loops/ coils/ windings of wire  reduce the ripple
 more number of turns  increase the output
Multi Segment
DC Generator
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DC GENERATOR - cont
N
N
S
S
Multi Segment Generator

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8. Components of a DC Generator : DC GENERATOR - cont

(a) Rotor (b) Stator
(a) – Rotor
– rotating part of a generator is known
as ARMATURE consists of :
 shaft
 iron core
 output windings (coils)
 commutator
- iron core provides a low reluctance path between the

field pole pieces
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DC GENERATOR - cont
- core is laminated  to reduce eddy current
- windings are wound in slots in the iron core and wedged to prevent them
being thrown out due to centrifugal force

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DC GENERATOR - cont
DC Generator Details

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Types of Armature Windings

– there are two types of windings namely  Wave & Lap
i – Wave wound; for high voltage, low current output

 two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles, each path
supplying half of the total current output
 only two brushes for the output
Wave
Winding

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In wave winding. the coils which are carrying current in one direction are
connected in series circuit and the carrying current in opposite direction are
connected in another series circuit. A wave winding is shown in figure.

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Types of Armature Windings
ii – Lap Wound; for high current, low voltage output

- there are as many paths in parallel as there are poles and many
sets of brushes as the machine’s poles
- the total current divides equally between them
Lap Winding

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In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is connected to a commutator
segment and to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and
similarly all coils are connected. This type of winding is known as lap because the
sides of successive coils overlap each other.

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DC GENERATOR - cont
 commutator; located at non-drive end of the

armature and consists a number
of copper segments mounted on,
but insulated from the shaft
- each commutator segment is insulated by mica
- each mica is ‘undercut’ to make its top

surface slightly below the level of the commutator
segments

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DC GENERATOR - cont
- Brushes
 made of low resistance contact ,
low specific electrical resistance
 low coefficient of friction
 good lubricating properties
i.e. graphite carbon

- some carbon brush with self lubricant
with molybdenum disulphide
- some machines may have chemicals such as barium fluoride added to form a film
(darkish brown) on the commutator to provide the lubrication between the brush
and commutator
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Brush Holders
DC GENERATOR
- hold the carbon brush in-position
- maintain good contact between
commutator by the brush spring
- pigtail  provide electrical connection

from carbon brush to the main
generator terminals

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DC GENERATOR - cont
(b) Stator – Magnetic Field system
- use electromagnet to create North and

South pole and
- yoke as a return path for its field
- windings are wound around the pole
pieces which bolted inside the yoke
- the numbers of poles always an even
number
- poles are laminated  to minimize
Magnetic Circuit of 4 Poles Generator
eddy current
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4-pole DC Generator

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DC GENERATOR - cont
- by using electromagnet, the field strength can be varied by amount of current flow to
the field windings

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DC GENERATOR - cont
4 poles using electromagnet

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The pole shoes are laminated

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DC GENERATOR - cont
c. Bearing – rotating armature is supported in ball or roller bearings at both ends and
lubricated with high melting point grease or lubricating oil

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Typical DC
Generator

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Not all of the mechanical energy used to drive generators is converted to electrical
energy.
Some of it is converted to heat as a result of :

a) friction in the bearings supporting the generator rotor
b) the resistance of the copper coils to the current
c) the action of the magnetic lines of force in the iron cores.
Thus, generators must be cooled by blowing air through them, or by running a

cooling liquid or gas past the coils, iron cores, and bearings.
A generator's efficiency refers to its effectiveness in converting mechanical energy

to electrical energy.

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Factors affecting generator output (limit)

depends on:
a) Heat
b) Armature Seizure
c) Internal Voltage Drop
d) Reactance Voltage
e) Armature Reaction

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FACTORS AFFECTING GENERATOR OUTPUT

1. Factors affecting generator output (limit) depends on:
(a) Heat
Ability to dissipate heat – Heat developed in the steel or iron of the magnetic
system, commutator and brush gear
- cooling is by ‘ram’ air from aircraft forward movement

via external scoop and ducting the generator or by
electrical fan or combination of both methods

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FACTORS AFFECTING GENERATOR OUTPUT
(b) Armature seizure

Generator drive system – must have some methods of disconnecting the
generator in the event of seizure of the generator
(bearing overheated)
- the drive shaft has a smaller diameter section
between the spline drives which will act as a weak
link in the drive system and shear (break) should
excessive torque be applied
Quill drive

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GENERATOR VOLTAGE AGAINST LOAD CURRENT
(c) Internal Voltage Drop
1. When a generator are not

connected to a load, there will be
no current flow from the source
to the load.
2. Therefore, the terminal voltage is
equal to the generated emf.

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3. When load is connected, the

load current (IL) will flow to the load,
through the armature and back to
the source.
4. Due to the armature has its own
resistance, there will be some
internal voltage drop across it.
5. Therefore, the terminal voltage

slightly drop. V = E - IARA

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6. As load current (IL) increases, the

terminal voltage falls further due to
the internal ‘lost’ voltage.
Voutput = E - IARA

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Terminal voltage drops as load current increases

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Terminal voltage drops as load current increases

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7. On an aircraft DC generating system,

the field current is adjusted to keep the
voltage constant under all load
conditions by a voltage regulator.

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REACTANCE VOLTAGE
(d) Reactance Voltage
1. When the armature windings

cut the magnetic field, emf is
induced and current flow
through coil (1) and coil (2) via
commutator segment ‘B’,
brush and to the external load.

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REACTANCE VOLTAGE
2. As commutator segment
rotate, coil (1) shorted out by
the carbon brush through
commutator segment ‘A’ and
‘B’ which cause the magnetic
field to collapse.

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REACTANCE VOLTAGE
3. The collapsing of magnetic field

causes back emf (self induced) build
up across coil (1) thus current flow
through reactive sparking as soon as
the carbon brush leave commutator
segment ‘B’.
4. This “Reactive Sparking” occurs at

each point of commutation for every
coil. This will cause brush wear,
commutator wear and radio
interference.

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REACTANCE VOLTAGE
5. To minimise reactive sparking
DOR
is by connecting interpoles
windings which are small
poles located midway
between the main poles.
6. The interpole windings are

connected in series with the
armature and has a same
polarity as the next main pole
ahead in the direction of
rotation.

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REACTANCE VOLTAGE
7. The current flow in the armature

is same as current flow through
the interpole winding. Interpole
Flux
8. When the armature approach the

point of commutation, the
magnetic field across the coil is
opposed by the interpole field
winding thus two opposite fluxes Arm
Flux
cancelled, leaving no flux to
collapse and no reactance
voltage and therefore no reactive
sparking.
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ARMATURE REACTION
(e) Armature Reaction

1. The main field of a DC generator is between the pole pieces.
2. When the generator is supplying to the load, a magnetic field is also
created by current flow in the armature winding i.e. armature field

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ARMATURE REACTION
3. The interaction of this two fields causes a
resultant field which is distorted and
weakened to an extent dependent on the
load.
4. This interaction and resultant distortion of
the main field by the armature field is called
“Armature Reaction”.
Current Going In Current Going Out

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ARMATURE REACTION
5. A line drawn vertically at a point midway
between the poles is termed as the
Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA).
6. When NO LOAD, the Magnetic Neutral
Axis (MNA) coincide with the GNA. The
carbon brush should position at 900 to
the main field i.e at MNA.
7. When load is connected, armature
reaction has caused the MNA to move in
front of GNA and as the load increases
the MNA will move further ahead of GNA.

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ARMATURE REACTION
8. The angle between MNA and GNA is
called angle of lead.
9. Now the brush has to be position at
MNA i.e. 900 to the main field.
10. If the brush is positioned at GNA then
there will be a considerable arcing
across the brush. This will reduce the
generated emf.
11. To continually adjust the brush position
is not practical due to MNA keep on
changing depends on load.

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ARMATURE REACTION
Angle of
lead

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ARMATURE REACTION
12. To overcome this problem, a
Compensating Windings are used.
13. This winding wound in slots in the
pole faces and connected in series
with the armature windings.

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ARMATURE REACTION
14. Since the compensating winding
and the armature winding in
series, the current flow to the
load is same as current flow to
the compensating winding.
15. The compensating winding is
wound to oppose the armature
winding thus neutralise each
other and armature reaction will
not exist.
16. The GNA and MNA position will
coincide at all times.

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ARMATURE REACTION
The GNA and MNA position will coincide at all times due to the action of
compensating winding under all load conditions.

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17. Interpoles with Auxiliary or Bias Windings  for higher speed range generator (eg.
2850 – 10 000 rpm):
• Reactance emf depends on the speed of the generator
• At high speed, reactance emf is high due to the rapid reversal of current and
collapse of current at the point of commutation.
• Thus, strong interpoles are required to ensure adequate compensation for the
high reactance emf.
• When generator is driven at a lower speed, with heavy load, the main field will be
strong & reactance emf is fairly small.
• Since interpole windings carry the same current as the armature windings, the
interpoles would be strong at low speed – unnecessary & would impair the
efficiency of the generator.

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17. Interpoles with Auxiliary or Bias Windings  for higher speed range generator (eg.
2850 – 10 000 rpm):
a. Is to obtain a correct interpole strength over all load and speed ranges.
b. Auxiliary windings is wound over an interpole to oppose the effect of the
interpole and connected in series with the main field.

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Interpoles with Auxiliary / Bias Windings

c. At high speed and heavy load, the bias winding gave little opposition to the
strong interpole magnetic field which is needed to suppress reactance e.m.f.
d. At low speed and heavy load, the bias windings will oppose the interpole
windings in reducing its strength and increase the efficiency of the generator.

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Review - FACTORS AFFECTING GENERATOR OUTPUT

a) Heat
Caused by high current flow and flux changes.
Heat dissipated by ram air.
b) Generator Armature Seizure

Jamming of generator’s armature rotation - due to bearing failure.
‘Quill drive’ with weak point will break to prevent damage to the generator and gearbox.
c) Internal Voltage Drop

Caused by internal resistance of the generator.
Voltage regulator will keep output voltage constant under all load conditions.
d) Reactance Voltage
Caused by changing current direction at the brush.
To overcome - install Interpole windings.
e) Armature Reaction
Distortion of the main field caused by the interaction between the main field and the armature field,
produced when current flows in the armature windings.
To overcome - install Compensating Windings and Interpoles Auxiliary Windings (for high speed gen)

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GENERATOR LOSSES
1. There are three generator losses :
a. Copper losses – power loss due to I2R across armature windings and field
windings i.e. losses varies with load
b. Iron losses –  eddy current losses  minimised by lamination

 hysteresis loss in the armature
c. Friction losses – brush friction, bearing friction and air bearing resistance
(windage)

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GENERATORS CLASSIFICATION
1. Are classified by which the magnetic field circuit (field winding) is energized.
It comes as :
a) A permanent magnet generator

b) Separately excited generator
c) Self excited generator

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GENERATORS CLASSIFICATION - cont

2. Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
- the field is provided by the high grade permanent magnet and a rotating armature
connected to the commutator segments.
- the volt/load characteristic show a slight
drop off in voltage as more load is applied
due to armature reaction, resistance losses.

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Permanent Magnet DC Generator

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- the armature winding and field 3. Separately Excited DC Generator

winding are not connected
- the field winding connected to

the external DC source, has
high resistance value and field
current is controlled by variable
resistor
- armature winding connected to the load
**** The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric current is

called excitation. ****
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Separately Excited Generator

a. Operation
- the field current unaffected and remains constant when load is connected
- the output voltage slightly drop as the load current increases due to resistance
losses i.e. IR drop inside
the armature
b. Not practical for aircraft use
Volt / Load Characteristic

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4. Self Excited Generators :
- its field winding and armature winding are internally connected
- no external source required and its initial field excitation comes from
residual magnetism (from previous magnetization)
- its field current comes from the generator output as soon the generator
rotates
- its classification depends on how the field and armature are connected

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5. There are three types of Self Excited Generator ;
a. Self Excited Series Wound Generator
b. Self Excited Shunt Wound Generator
c. Self Excited Compound Wound Generator
Series Wound Shunt Wound Compound Wound

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6. Self Excited Series Wound DC Generator :
a. Construction
- the field coil connected in series with
armature field
- series coil has few turns thick copper
wire and has very low resistance
armature

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Self Excited Series Wound DC Generator

b. Operation :
- on no load, the generated output is
less due to weak residual magnetism
- as load connected, generator load
increases (IF = IA) therefore field
current increases the magnetism thus
generated emf rises
- as load current increases, the field
becomes saturation and no more
increases on the terminal voltage Rising Volt / Load Characteristic
- voltage starts to fall due to IR drop

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Self Excited Series Wound DC Generator

c. Application : not practical for aircraft use

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Self Excited Shunt Wound DC Generator
7. Self Excited Shunt Wound Generator :

a. Construction
- the field connected in parallel (shunt) with
the generator armature
- the shunt field has many turns of fine copper
wires and has very high resistance
field armature

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b. Operation :
- when armature rotates, a weak residual
magnetism is induced onto the armature thus
induces small generated emf
field
- this small induced emf will supply the field
windings, increasing the flux and increase the
armature
generated emf and fed back to its field again
so does the output

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- when load is connected, the terminal voltage slightly fall due to IR drop across the
armature
- as load increases, the terminal voltage drop further due to reduction field excitation
- if the load demand is too great, the

voltage will ‘tuck under’ or ‘turn
under’ which cause the voltage
drops to zero
- this generator must be allowed to

build-up first before load is connected,
otherwise, ‘turn under’  gen fails to excite Falling Volt / Load Characteristic

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c. Application : mostly used for aircraft with DC power supply

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Self Excited Compound Wound DC Generator
8. Self Excited Compound Wound Generator :

a. Construction
- combination of both series winding and shunt winding
- series winding are wound to assist the shunt winding known as cummulative
compound

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b. Operation
- if the number of series field turns is arranged so that the output voltage at no load
and full load is the same, it is said to be level compound (just compensate the IR
drop only)
- if the number of series turn is increased, the output voltage increases with load, it
said to be over compounded (over-compensate the IR drop)

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- if series winding is wound to oppose the shunt winding, it is said to be differential
compound generator i.e when no load the voltage is high but the voltage drop
steeply when load is applied and has no practical use for aircraft

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Review - TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
1. PMG (permanent magnet as the main field)

2. Separately Excited DC Generator
3. Self Excited DC Generator
- Series Wound Gen
- Shunt Wound Gen
- Compound Wound Gen
 Over compound
 Level compound
 Differential compound

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INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION
1. Sparking at brushes causes radio interference.
2. Radio interference can be

minimized by connecting
capacitor in parallel with
the generator output
between main terminal
and earth, known as
suppressor.

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NEXT LESSON WILL BE
VOLTAGE REGULATION

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DC Generator: Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

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FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Page No: 1 Subject Code AAB10403/AKD10203

BASIC GENERATOR THEORY

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BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

The magnitude of the emf induced depends on :

BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

Current going IN Current going OUT

PRODUCTION OF A SINE WAVE

BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

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BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

Basic Simple Generator Produce Alternating Current (A.C.)

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BASIC GENERATOR THEORY - cont

a. First finger – direction of magnetic field

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ii - The current through the load remains in the

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Need of a Split Ring / Commutator: DC GENERATOR - cont

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According to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction of induced current

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Multi Segment Generator

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8. Components of a DC Generator : DC GENERATOR - cont

- iron core provides a low reluctance path between the

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Types of Armature Windings

i – Wave wound; for high voltage, low current output

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Types of Armature Windings

ii – Lap Wound; for high current, low voltage output

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 commutator; located at non-drive end of the

- each commutator segment is insulated by mica

- each mica is ‘undercut’ to make its top

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i.e. graphite carbon

- pigtail  provide electrical connection

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- use electromagnet to create North and

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