Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 1 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Meteorology of Windstorms
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Types of storms producing extreme winds :

• extra-tropical depressions (gales)
• synoptic scale 40-60° latitude

• tropical cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons)

• synoptic scale 5°-30° latitude oceans and coast

• thunderstorms (downbursts, tornados)

• meso scale 0°-50° latitude local convection

• downslope winds (chinook, Santa Ana)

• meso scale certain topographic situations thermally driven
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Forces acting on air in horizontal motion :

• Pressure gradient - pressure differences created by non -
uniform solar heating

• Coriolis force - (apparent) force due to the earth’s rotation

• Centrifugal force - air moving with small radius of

curvature

• Frictional forces - due to earth’s surface -significant at

lower heights (boundary layer)
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Pressure gradient force :

p y z z p
(p+ x) y z
y x
x
p x y z
Net force = 
x
p
Net force per unit volume = x

 1  p
Pressure gradient force per unit mass =   
 ρ a  x
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Coriolis force :
• an apparent force due to the rotation of the earth

(S. Pole)

AA =  U (t)2 = (½)a (t)2

a=2U
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Coriolis force :

• acts to the right of the direction of motion in the northern

hemisphere, and to the left of the velocity vector, in the
southern hemisphere
• Coriolis force per unit mass (acceleration) = 2U  sin 
= fU

 = angle of latitude  = angular velocity of the earth

f= 2 sin 

Coriolis force is zero where  and f are zero i.e. at Equator

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Geostrophic wind :
• Balance between pressure gradient and Coriolis forces

• Approximates wind speed in upper atmosphere

 1  p
• Ugeostrophic =   
 ρa f  x
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Geostrophic wind :
• Flow parallel to isobars
• Anti-clockwise rotation around low pressure centre in N. Hemisphere
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Cyclonic systems :
• Anti-clockwise rotation in Northern Hemisphere

Clockwise rotation in Southern Hemisphere

• direction of Coriolis force determines direction of rotation

in cyclones including hurricanes

Near the equator ( < 5° N), hurricanes cannot form

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Gradient wind :
Includes centrifugal force : (U2/r) per unit mass
r = radius of curvature of isobars

• Equation of motion :
anti-cyclone U2 1 p
 fU 0
r  a r

U2 1 p
cyclone  fU 0
r  a r

Quadratic equations for gradient wind speed, U

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Gradient wind :

• Solutions :
anti-cyclone
fr f 2 r 2 r p
U  
2 4  a r

cyclone fr f 2 r 2 r p
U   
2 4  a r

U is limited to f r for an anti-cyclone, but unlimited for a cyclone

2
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Frictional effects in ‘boundary layer’ :

• Friction at earth’s surface acts in opposite direction to flow
new force balance - component towards low pressure region as height decreases

Direction change with height - Ekman spiral <30o

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Characteristics of hurricanes :
• Known as ‘typhoons’ in S. China sea and elsewhere as ‘tropical cyclones’

• Can exist between 5 and 40 latitude

full strength between 10 and 30 latitudes

• Require ocean temperature greater than 26 Celsius (79°F)

taken to higher latitudes by warm ocean currents

• 3-dimensional vortex structure with ‘eye’ of calm winds

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Characteristics of hurricanes :

(S. Hemisphere)

• 3-dimensional vortex structure with ‘eye’ of calm winds

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Variation of wind speed/direction at a point in a hurricane :

Wind
speed

Direction

(Figure 1.7 in book shows low wind speed in ‘eye’)

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Wind field of hurricanes :

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Wind field of hurricanes :

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Saffir-Simpson scale for hurricanes :

Central Pressure Windspeed (mph)

Category Surge Damage
inches of (ft) Potential
millibars 1-min. 3-sec
Hg
I > 980 > 28.9 74-95 94-121 4-5 Minimal
II 965-979 28.5-28.9 96-110 122-140 6-8 Moderate
III 945-964 27.9-28.5 111-130 141-165 9-12 Extensive
IV 920-944 27.2-27.9 131-155 166-197 13-18 Extreme
V < 920 < 27.2 > 155 >198 > 18 Catastrophic
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Profiles of pressure and gradient windspeed :

pressure
p  po   A
 exp  B 
pn  po r  Holland (1980)

pressure gradient
p AB   A
 p B 1 exp  B 
r r r 
p = pn-p0 where p0 is central pressure

gradient wind speed frf 2 r 2 Δp AB A

U   exp(  )
2 4 ρa r B rB
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Profiles of pressure and gradient wind :

1010
1000
pressure sea level (mb) 990
Pressure at

980
profile 970
960
950
940
0 10 20 30 40 50
Radial distance from centre (km)

60
Gradient wind speed

50
40
gradient wind 30
(m/s)

speed profile 20
10 Cyclone ‘Tracy’
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
1974
Radial distance from centre (km)
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Thunderstorm winds :
• Severe winds in small areas generated by strong downdrafts and
tornadoes
• Conditions for generation of downdrafts
– High wind shear
– Supply of warm moist air at ground level
– Uplift mechanism
• Melting hail cools surrounding air
– initiates downdraft
– augmented by evaporating rain

• Extreme winds are dominated by thunderstorm downdrafts in many

locations : Argentina, South Africa, Central U.S., Singapore ….
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Downbursts :
• Macrobursts : > 4 km in horizontal extent

• Microbursts : < 4 km in horizontal extent

cumulus
cloud

warm air

cool air

• Largest documented wind speed : 67 m/s (130 knots), Andrews Air Force
Base, Maryland, 1983
(anemometer record : Fig. 1.9 in book)
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Downburst anemometer record :

Max gust

1 hour

Wind
speed

Direction
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Downburst wind speed footprint :

15m/s 20 30 40 50

Direction of storm
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornadoes :

Funnel-shaped vortex created in thunderstorms

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornadoes :

‘Supercell’ - intense convective cell

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornadoes :

• Narrow width - typically 100 metres can be up to 1000 m

• Can travel long distances before dissipation - up to 50 km (30 miles)

• Most common in mid-West of U.S. (esp. Oklahoma, Kansas)

also occur in Argentina, South Africa, India, Russia, Australia
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornadoes - Fujita scale:

F-Scale (Wind Number of Cumulative
Speed Range) Tornadoes Percentage Percentage
Observed in
U.S. 1950-94
F0 (40-72 mph) 11,046 31.3 31.3

F1 (73-112 mph) 12,947 36.7 68.0

F2 (113-157 mph) 7,717 21.9 89.9

F3 (158-206 mph) 2,523 7.2 97.1

F4 (207-260 mph) 898 2.6 99.7

F5 (261-318 mph) 121 0.3 100.0

TOTAL 35,252 100.0

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Regions exposed to tornadoes (ASCE 7-95):

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornado wind field:

• Can be modelled as a Rankine (combined) vortex:

Tangential
velocity

Radial Vr  0.5V
Vertical Vv  0.62V
Static
pressure
 Meteorology of windstorms

• Tornado damage footprint :

 Meteorology of windstorms

• Downslope winds :

• Thermally driven - several different phenomena

• usually occur on the lee slopes of mountains, or in valleys

• U.S. : chinook winds (Colorado)

Santa Ana winds (California)

• Affect small areas

• Dealt with in wind loading codes as ‘special wind regions’
 End of Lecture 1

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu