Digital Signal Processing

Lecture-1
 Overview

• Signal
• Continuous or analog signals
• Discrete-time signals
• Causal signals
• Deterministic and Random signals
• Digital Functions (Impulse, Step, Ramp, Power, Exponential, Sine)
• Notation for Digital Signals
• Composite Functions
• Two-Dimensional Digital Signals
• Linear, Time-Invariant (LTI), Causal Systems
 Signal
• A signal is a physical quantity, or quality, which conveys
information
• The variation of the signal value as a function of the
independent variable is called a waveform
• The independent variable often represents time
• We define a signal as a function of one independent variable
that contains information about the behavior or nature of a
phenomenon
• We assume that the independent variable is time even in
cases where the independent variable is a physical quantity
other than time
 Continuous or Analog Signals
• Continuous signal is a signal that exists at every instant of time

• A continuous signal is often referred to as continuous time (CT)

or analog

• The independent variable is a continuous variable

• Continuous signal can assume any value over a continuous

range of numbers
 Continuous or Analog Signals
• Most of the signals in the physical world are CT signals.

• Examples: voltage & current, pressure, temperature, velocity,

etc.
 Discrete-Time Signals
• A signal defined only for discrete values of time is called a
discrete-time (DT) signal or simply a discrete signal

• Discrete signal can be obtained by taking samples of an analog

signal at discrete instants of time

• Digital signal is a discrete-time signal whose values are

represented by digits
 Discrete-Time Signals
• Figure (a): CT Signal
• Figure (b): DT Signal

• Examples of DT signals in nature:

• Number of students in a class
• Population of the nth generation of certain species
 Deterministic and Random
Signal
• Signal that can be described by an explicit mathematical form
is deterministic

• Periodic signal consists of a basic shape of finite duration that

is replicated infinitely

• Signal that cannot be described in an explicit mathematical

form is called random, also known as nondeterministic or
stochastic
 Digital Functions
The basic digital functions (signal or sequence) are

• Unit Impulse Function

• Unit Step Function
• Unit Ramp Function
• Power Function
• Exponential Function
• Sine Function

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 Unit Impulse Function
The unit impulse function or unit sample sequence is defined as
the sequence with values
 Unit Impulse Function
The unit impulse function δ[n] has an amplitude of zero at all
samples except n = 0, where it has the value 1.

Every digital signal can be written as a sum of impulse functions,

using the amplitude at each sample.
 Unit Impulse Function
Example: Determine the following:
a) δ[0]
b) δ[3]
c) δ[-2]

Answers

a) δ[0] = 1

b) δ[3] = 0

c) δ[-2] = 0
 Scaled Unit Impulse Function
Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = 4δ[n]
 Scaled Unit Impulse Function
Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = -2δ[n]
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function
Example: Draw the following signals:

a) x[n] = δ[n - 2]

b) x[n] = δ[n + 2]
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function
Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = δ[n - 3]
 Unit Impulse Function
Example: write a function to describe the signal in the figure.

x[n] = δ[n] + δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + δ[n-3] + δ[n-4]

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 Unit Impulse Function
Example: write a function to describe the signal in the figure.

x[n] = 4δ[n] - 2δ[n-1] + 3δ[n-2] - δ[n-3]

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 Unit Impulse Function

1, k  0
k  
0, k  0
Matlab Code
Unit impulse sequence
k1 = -5;
k2 = 10; 1
k = k1:k2;
0.8
x = (k==0); k
0.6

stem(k, x) 0.4

xlabel('k') 0.2
ylabel('\delta_k')
title('Unit impulse sequence') 0
axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) -5 0 5 10
k
 Unit Step Function
The unit step function or unit step sequence is defined as the
sequence with values
 Unit Step Function
The unit step function u[n] has an amplitude of zero for n < 0
and an amplitude of one for all other samples.

The signal u[-n] has the value one up to and including n = 0, and
the value zero thereafter.
 Unit Step Function
Example: Determine the values of the following
a) u[-1], b) u[0], c) u[1]

Answers

a) u[-1] = 0
b) u[0] = 1
c) u[1] = 1
 Scaled Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal x[n] = 3u[n]
 Shifted Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[n - 2], and x[n] = u[n + 2]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[-n]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[n - 3]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[3 - n]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal
x[n] = u[n] + 2u[n - 2]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal
x[n] = u[n] - u[n - 3]
 Unit Step Function
Example: A digital signal is described as x[n] = 4(u[n] - u[n - 1]).
Write the function that describes x[n-3].

Answer

Substituting n = (n – 3) gives

x[n-3] = 4(u[n-3] - u[n - 4])

 Unit Step Function

1, k  0
uk  
0, k  0
Matlab Code
Unit step sequence
k1 = -5;
1
k2 = 10;
k = k1:k2; 0.8

x = (k>=0); 0.6
uk

stem(k, x) 0.4

xlabel('k') 0.2
ylabel('u_k')
0
title('Unit step sequence')
axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) -5 0 5 10
k
 Unit Ramp Function

• The unit-ramp function is defined as

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 Power Function
• Power functions take the form:
x[n] = Aα βn
• In the special case where α = e, such functions are called
exponential functions.
• When β is positive, the function grows.
• When β is negative the function decays.
• When α is negative, the signal samples alternate positive and
negative.
• The value of A is determine the magnitude/amplitude/value
of the function when n = 0

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 Power Function
• Example: Draw a signal x[n] = (-0.6)n

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 Exponential Function
• Exponential functions take the form:

x[n] = Ae βn

• Where e = 2.71828
• When β is positive, the function grows.
• When β is negative the function decays.
• When α is negative, the signal samples alternate positive and
negative.
• The value of A is determine the magnitude/amplitude/value
of the function when n = 0

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 Exponential Function
• Example: Draw a signal x[n] = e-0.5n

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 Complex Exponential Function
• A digital signal of the form

x[n] = Aejβn

is called a complex exponential function.

• For all n, samples of this signal lie in the complex plane on a

circle with radius A.

• By Euler’s identity, a complex exponential may be expressed

as a rectangular-form complex number
eβn= cosβn + jsinβn
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 Sinusoidal Sequence
The sinusoidal functions take the form

x[n] = Asin(nW + q) or x[n] = Acos(nW + q) for all n with real A.

where W is a digital frequency in radians and q is a phase shift.

 Sinusoidal Sequence
Example: plot of x[n] = 3sin(nπ/8)
 Phase Shifting a Digital Sinusoid
Example: Plot the following signals

x1[n] = sin(n2π/9)

x2[n] = sin(n2π/9 - 3π/5)

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Periodicity of Digital Sinusoidal Sequence

• Compared to analog counterpart, digital sine and cosine signals

are not always periodic sequences.

• These functions are periodic only when 2p/W is a ratio of

integers N/M.

• When 2p/W = N/M, N is the number of samples in the digital

period, and M is the number of analog cycles that elapse while N
samples are collected.

• An analog frequency f in Hz is related to its corresponding digital

frequency W in radians through the equation
Periodicity of Digital Sinusoidal Sequence

Example: Repeating and non-repeating digital sinusoids.

Periodicity of Digital Sinusoidal Sequence

Example: A digital signal is defined as x[n] = cos(2n)

• Is this a digital sequence periodic?
• Find the first eight elements in the sequence.

Solution
W  2,
2p/W = π, this number is irrational and cannot be expressed in term of ratio of two
integers. Therefore this digital sequence is not periodic.
Periodicity of Digital Sinusoidal Sequence

Example: A digital signal is defined as x[n] = cos(n4π/5)

• Is this a digital sequence periodic?
• Find the first eight elements in the sequence.

Solution
W  4π/5,
2p/W = 5/2, this number is rational and can be expressed in term of ratio of two
integers N/M. Therefore this digital sequence is periodic. Where N = 5 means
sequence repeats every 5 samples, and M = 2 means these 5 samples are
collected over 2 complete cycles of the analog signal being sampled.
 Notation for Digital Signals
• A stream of digital codes is presented to a digital signal processor
for processing.

• It is not convenient, however, to represent a digital signal using

these codes.

• Instead, it is more helpful to represent it using the quantization

levels for each sample.

• A digital signal x is given the notation x[n] to indicate that it has

values only where samples are taken.

• The integer n marks the number of the sample, taken at the time t
= nTS, where TS is the sampling interval.
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 Notation for Digital Signals
• A digital signal x[n] may be modified by time shifts and
resampling.

For Example
• Signal x[n-2], shifts x[n] two steps to the right
• Signal x[n+3], shifts x[n] three steps to the left
• Signal x[2n], selects every other sample from x[n]
• Signal x[3n], selects every third sample
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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]

Signal x[n-1] is found by shifting

the sample values of signal x[n] by
1 steps towards right.

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]

Signal x[n-2] is found by shifting

the sample values of signal x[n] by
2 steps towards right.

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]
e) x[2n]

Signal x[2n] selects alternate

sample from the signal x[n].

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]
e) x[2n]
f) x[3n]
if y(n) = x(2n) then y(n) takes only even
numbered sample. i.e y(0) = x(0), y(1) = x(2),y(2) = x(4), y(3) = x(6)

Signal x[3n] selects every third

sample from the signal x[n].

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 Generation of Digital Signals
Example:

Solution
a)

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 Generation of Digital Signals
b) The first five sample values for part (1) are calculated and
plotted in the Figure.

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 Generation of Digital Signals
b) The first eight sample values for part (2) are calculated and
plotted in the Figure.

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 Linear System

• A linear system is illustrated in the figure.

• The linear system obeys the superposition principle.
• 𝑦1(𝑛) is the system output using an input 𝑥1(𝑛)
• 𝑦2(𝑛) the system output with an input 𝑥2(𝑛)

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 Linear System

• The Linear system output due to the weighted sum inputs

∝𝑥1(𝑛) + 𝛽𝑥2(𝑛) is equal to the same weighted sum of the
individual outputs obtained from their corresponding inputs,
that is, 𝑦(𝑛) = ∝𝑦1(𝑛) + 𝛽𝑦2(𝑛), where ∝ and 𝛽 are constants.

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 Linear System

Example: A digital amplifier is represented by 𝑦(𝑛) = 10𝑥(𝑛), the

input is multiplied by 10 to generate the output.

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Linear System

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Linear System

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 Time-Invariant System

A time-invariant system is illustrated in the figure.

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Time-Invariant System

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 Time-Invariant System

Example: Determine whether the linear system y(𝑛) = 2𝑥(𝑛) − 5

is time invariant.

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Time-Invariant System

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 Time-Invariant System

Example: Determine whether the linear system y(𝑛) = 2𝑥(3𝑛)

is time invariant.

The system is not time invariant.

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Causal System

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 Causal System

Example: Determine whether the following systems are causal or not.

Solution

1) Causal
2) Non-causal

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