What Discourse

Analysis is.
Hello!
First Group of Discourse Analysis
subject :
1. Adhitya Ulinnuha
2. Devita Tri Artika S
3. Dhelia Dwi Agista H
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DEFINITION OF
DISCOURSE
The term discourse analysis was first
introduced by Zellig Harris (1952) as a
way of analyzing connected speech
and writing. Harris had two main
interests: the examination of language
beyond the level of the sentence and
the relationship between linguistic and
non-linguistic behavior.

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“Connected discourse occurs within a particular situation – whether of a
person speaking, or of a conversation, or of someone sitting down
occasionally over the period of months to write a particular kind of book in
a particular literary or scientific tradition.” (Zellig Harris)

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Discourse Analysis is the investigation of knowledge about language
beyond the word, clause, phrase and sentence levels. All of them are the
basic building blocks of successful communication.

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 THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN LANGUAGE
AND CONTEXT
Discourse analysis is interested in "what happens
when people draw on the knowledge they have
about language to do things in the world“
(Johnstone 2002 : 3)

Discourse analysis considers the relationship

between language and the contexts in which it is
used and is concerned with the description and
analysis of both spoken and written interactions. Its
primary purpose, as Chimombo and Roseberry (1998)
argue, is to provide a deeper understanding and
appreciation of texts and how they become
meaningful to their users.

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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND
PRAGMATICS

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 THE AREA OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS = THE AREA
OF PRAGMATICS

Pragmatics is concerned with how the interpretation

of language depends on knowledge of the real world.

Pragmatics is interested in what people mean by

what they say, rather than what words in their most
literal sense might mean by themselves.

Pragmatics that is the prime consideration of the

ways in which people means more than what they
say in spoken and written discourses.

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THE DISCOURSE STRUCTURE
OF TEXT

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Discourse Analysts are interested in how
people connect into a structure what they
intend to convey to others in a conversation or
in a piece of writing. For Example there are
cultural differences of greetings in Japan and
USA. In USA they are very short while in
Japan they include weather and other details
in greetings.

“Dear Dr. Paltridge something like Greetings from a

hot and sizzling Tokyo or Greetings! It's such a
beautiful day today here in Kyoto”

It is not a ritual requirement in English, as it is

in Japanese
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CULTURAL WAYS OF
SPEAKING AND WRITING

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One useful way of looking at the ways in which
language is used by particular cultural groups
through the notion of the ethnography of
communication (Hymes 1964). Hymes started this
work in reaction to the neglect, at the time, of speech
in linguistic analyses and anthropological
descriptions of cultures, His work was also a reaction
to views of language which took little or no account
of the social and cultural contexts in which language
occurs.

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 EXAMPLE

I buy my lunch at a • Sumimasen (permisi)

takeaway shop in an • Futari desu (tolong meja untuk
2 orang)
English-speaking • Osusume wa nandesuka?
country is different (Apa menu rekomendasinya?)
from how I might do • Kore wa nandesuka?(Apa ini?)
this in Japan. In an • Kore, onegaishimasu (saya
English-speaking pesan yang ini)
• Sofuto dorinku wa
country there is greater arimasuka?(Apa ada minuman
ritual use of Please and ringan?)
Thanks on the part of • Mou ichido, ii desuka?(Bisa
the customer in this ulangi sekali lagi?)
kind of interaction than • Gochisousama deshita (terima
kasih atas hidangannya)
there is in Japan.
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It simply means that there are culturally different ways of doing things
with language in different cultures. The sequence of events I go through
may be the same in both cultures, but the ways of using language in those
events. And other sorts of non-linguistic behavior, may differ.

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COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE & DISCOURSE

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Hymes's notion (1072) of communicative
competence is an important part of the theoretical
background to the ethnography of communication.
Communicative competence involves not only
👨
knowing a language, but also what to say to whom,
and how to say it appropriately in a particular
situation. That is. it includes not only knowing what
is grammatically correct and what is not, but also
when and where to use language appropriately and
with whom It includes knowledge of rules of
speaking, as well as knowing how to use and
respond to different speech acts.

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 Communicative competence is often described as
being made up of four underlying components:
grammatical competence, sociolinguistic
competence, discourse competence and strategic
competence:
1) Mastery of the language code (grammatical competence)
2) Knowledge of appropriate language use (sociolinguistic
competence)
3) Knowledge of how to connect utterances in a text so it is
both cohesive and coherent (discourse competence), and
4) Mastery of the strategies that speakers use to
compensate for breakdowns in communication as well as
the strategies they use to enhance the effectiveness of the
communications (strategic competence)

(Canale and Swain 1980: Canale 1083)

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DISCURSIVE COMPETENCE

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A further way of looking at cultural ways of speaking and writing is
through the notion of discursive competence (Bhatia : 2004). Discursive
competence draws together the notions of textual competence, generic
competence and social competence.

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  Textual competence refers to the ability to produce and
interpret contextually appropriate texts. To do this we
draw on our linguistic, textual, contextual and
pragmatic knowledge of what typically occurs in a
THREE COMPETENCE particular text, how it is typically organized and how it
is typically interpreted.
 Generic competence describes how we are able to
respond to both recurring and new communicative
situations by constructing, interpreting. Using and
exploiting conventions associated with the use of
particular kinds of texts, or genres.
 Social competence describes how we use language to
take part in social and institutional interactions in a way
that enables is to express our social identity, within the
constraints of the particular social situation and
communicative interaction.
SCOPE OF DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
Discourse analysis is a view of
language at the level of text.
Discourse analysis is also a view of
language in use; that is, how people
achieve certain communicative goals
through the use of language, perform
certain communicative acts,
participate in certain communicative
events and present themselves to
others.

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I. Discourse as the social construction of reality

The view of discourse as the social construction of reality see texts

as communicative units which are embedded in social and cultural
practices. The texts we write and speak both shape and are
shaped by these practices. Through discourse we always construct
our social reality.

The example : BBC Panorama interview in which Princess Diana

doesn’t only talk about herself but while she talking she also
constructs her social world in a way that she wants people to see.

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➜ II. Discourse and socially situated identities

➜ When we speak or write, we use more than just language to

display who we are, and how we want people to see us. The
way we dress, the gestures we use, and the ways we act and
interact also influence how we display social identity.

➜ For example, when David is in an interview, and he tells that

his son goes to Chicago University, he establishes his identity
of being a father and a husband. In the same interview if he
discloses it to the audience that he is a high ranking officer in
the Army, he constructs his second identity of being an army
office. It includes the way we dress, the way we act and
interact influences.
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III. Discourse and performance

Sometimes our discourse not only shows the intentions and

identities, it actually performs the intended functions. It’s based
on the view that in saying something we do it. That is, we bring
states of affairs into being as a result of what we say and what
we do.

Examples : I promise and I now pronounce you man and wife.

Once I have said promise I have committed myself to doing
something. Once a priest, or a marriage celebrant, says “I now
pronounce you man and wife”. The couple have 'become' man and
wife or they married.
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IV. Discourse and intertextuality

All texts, whether they are spoken or written, make their meanings
against the background of other texts and things that have been
said on other occasions (Lemke 1992). All text whether spoken or
written, takes meanings from other texts and refers to other texts.
So, this way they are in an intertextual relationship with other texts.

Example : Casablanca movie was made on a very small budget and

in a very short time. As a result its creators were forced to
improvise the plot, mixing a little of everything they knew worked in
a movie as they went. The result is what Eco describes as an
intertextuality collage'

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SUMMARY
Discourse analysis focuses on knowledge about
language and the world beyond the word, clause,
phrase and sentence that is needed for successful
communication. It considers the relationship between
language and the social and cultural contexts in
which it is used and looks at patterns of organization
across text. It considers what people mean by what
they say, how they work out what people mean, and
the way language present different views of the
world and different understanding. This includes an
examination on how discourse is shaped by
relationship between participants, and the effect
discourse has upon social identities and relations.
Thanks! 😉
Any questions ???
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