Sheet Metal Airframe Construction

• Sheet metal aircraft construction dominates modern aviation. Generally, sheet metal made of aluminum alloys
is used in airframe sections that serve as both the structure and outer aircraft covering, with the metal parts
joined with rivets or other types of fasteners.
• Metal aircraft utilize aluminum alloy, magnesium, titanium, stainless steel, aluminum alloy bonded sandwich
(honeycomb), glass fiber, advanced composite materials, and other exotic materials.
• Sheet metal is used extensively in many types of aircraft. Sheet metal is obtained by rolling metal into flat
sheets of various thicknesses ranging from thin (2 mm) to plate (pieces thicker than 6 mm). Sheet metal can
be cut and bent into a variety of shapes.
 Design Philosophy
• When dealing with aircraft construction, there are two general groupings of sheet-metal components:
structural and nonstructural components.
• Structural components are those components of the aircraft that transfer the forces exerted on the aircraft
from one location to another or absorb the forces during flight. Ribs, stringers, longerons, bulkheads, and the
aircraft’s skin are typically structural components.
• Nonstructural components are those components that do not transmit or absorb the forces of flight.
Nonstructural components typically provide aerodynamic functions, such as a fairing, or direct air flow in a
manner similar to cowlings or intake and exhaust ducts.
• Although almost all aircraft sheet-metal components transmit some force, the primary consideration in aircraft
design is placed upon the structural components.
• As new materials and their attributes were added to sheetmetal components and more experience was
obtained in aircraft design, the philosophies used in designing structural aircraft components were altered to
reflect these new developments.
 Safe-Life Design
• Originally, the recognized theory of structural design was called safe-life. The philosophy of safe-life design
was to test the various components to failure.
Fail-Safe Design
• The next stage in structural design philosophy was fail-safe construction. In fail-safe construction each
component was designed to be able to accept the forces of adjacent components.
• Although regarding failure, the fail-safe design philosophy did not include a disciplined study of crack
growth and residual strength characteristics of the components. Inspection criteria established using the
fail-safe philosophy failed to specify inspection techniques.
• Another major difficulty with both safe-life and fail-safe design philosophies was that their design
testing was done in a laboratory environment with near-perfect parts. In-service variables such as
aircraft utilization and climate were not factored into the component’s testing.
Damage-Tolerant Design
• Realizing that these operating variances existed and that components are rarely in perfect or even near-perfect
condition when fabricated on a production basis, the damage tolerant design philosophy for sheet-metal
structural components developed gradually.
• Formally acknowledged and accepted by the FAA in 1978, the damage-tolerant design philosophy accepts the
existence of minor flaws in components, anticipates their growth, and establishes an inspection discipline
designed to identify these flaws before they become critical to the aircraft’s airworthiness.
• Where damage-tolerant design is not practical, safe-life philosophy designs are required.
 Factors Affecting Sheet-Metal Part and Joint Design
• All structural components of an aircraft are designed to withstand the effect of these forces during the life of
the aircraft. The most basic of these forces result from the weight of the aircraft, flight loads such as lift and
drag, and propulsion loads such as thrust. The magnitude of these loads varies during the life of the aircraft,
depending upon the frequency and type of operation the aircraft experiences.
• The aircraft fuselage structure experiences these forces all during the life of the aircraft. Wing loads are
transmitted through fuselage structure while the aircraft is static, during taxiing, takeoffs, and landings, and
during flight. On the ground the fuselage must support its own weight and a portion of the weight of other
aircraft components (and fuel). During taxiing, particularly during maneuvering operations, the fuselage
structure is subjected to twisting forces (torsion) as the aircraft turns. In flight, the fuselage experiences a
variety of forces as the wings produce lift and raise the fuselage into the air.
• There are different factors affecting sheet metal part and design such as stresses, strain, fatigue, crack,
scratches and Hole generation etcetera.
Stresses
• The six types of stress in an aircraft are described as tension, compression, shear, bearing, bending, and
torsion (or twisting). The first four are commonly called basic stresses; the last two, combination stresses.
Stresses usually act in combinations rather than singly.
Tension
• Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull apart. The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but air
resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension, which tends to stretch the aircraft.
Compression
• Compression, the stress that resists a crushing force, tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.
Shear
• Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent layer.
Bearing
• Bearing stress resists the force that the rivet or bolt places on the hole. As a rule, the strength of the fastener
should be such that its total shear strength is approximately equal to the total bearing strength of the sheet
material.
Torsion
• Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it
to one side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus, torsion is created.
Bending
• Bending (or beam stress) is a combination of compression and tension. The bending stress causes a tensile
stress to act on the upper half of the beam and a compressive stress on the lower half.
Strain
• In order for strain to exist, a stress must be applied. Strain is measured by establishing a ratio of the increase in length (that
results from a stress) divided by the original length of the material.
Fatigue
• As an aircraft ages, it is subjected to a variety of stresses. These stresses come from loads applied on the ground, during
taxiing, take-off and landing, aircraft pressurization, and during flight. The accumulation of these stresses over time results
in a weakening of the material. This weakening is called fatigue.
Cracks and Scratches
• If there is a scratch in the material, the thickness in the area of the scratch is reduced. Since the cross-sectional area is
the denominator of the stress equation (force/area), as the area lessens the stress rises, resulting in the term stress
riser.
• If there are no scratches in the material (assuming a constant thickness), the stress on the material is constant
throughout.
• Cracks in a material have much the same effect as scratches in that they reduce the stress-bearing capabilities of a
material. Since a crack is, in essence, a void in the material, the area of the crack cannot carry any of the stress load.
Hole Generation
• Although holes themselves do not create rapid localized stress risers, the process of generating a hole often does.
• During the drilling or punching process used for the creation of a hole, small cracks at the circumference of the hole
are initiated. These small cracks introduce small stress risers into the material and begin the crack-growth process.
 Tools for sheet metal construction and Repair
• These specialized tools and machines help the airframe technician construct or repair sheet metal in a faster, simpler, and better
manner than possible in the past. Powered by human muscle, electricity, or compressed air, these tools are used to lay out,
mark, cut or drill sheet metal.
Layout Tools
• Layout process of various kinds are applied to a metal surface for layout work so that the pattern will stand out clearly while
the technician is cutting along the drawn or scribed lines.
 Scales
• Scales are available in various lengths, with the 6-inch and 12-inch scales being the most common and affordable. A scale with
fractions on one side and decimals on the other side is very useful.
 Combination Square
• A combination square consists of a steel scale with three heads that can be moved to any position on the scale and locked in
place.
• The three heads are a stock head that measures 90° and 45° angles, a protractor head that can measure any angle between the
head and the blade, and a center head that uses one side of the blade as the bisector of a 90° angle. The center of a shaft can be
found by using the center head.
 Dividers
• Dividers are used to transfer a measurement from a device to a scale to determine its value.
 Rivet Spacers
• A rivet spacer is used to make a quick and accurate rivet pattern layout on a sheet.
Marking Tools
 Pens
• Fiber-tipped pens are the preferred method of marking lines and hole locations directly on aluminum, because the
graphite in a pencil can cause corrosion when used on aluminium.
 Scribes
• A scribe is a pointed instrument used to mark a point at which it is to be cut. A scribe should only be used when marks
will be removed by drilling or cutting because it makes scratches that weaken the material.
 Punches
• Punches are usually made of carbon steel that has been hardened and tempered. Generally classified as solid or
hollow. punches are designed according to their intended use. A solid punch is a steel rod with various shapes at the
end for different uses.
 Prick Punch
• A prick punch is primarily used during layout to place reference marks on metal because it produces a small
indentation.
 Center Punch
• A center punch is used to make indentations in metal as an aid in drilling. These indentations help the drill, which has a
tendency to wander on a flat surface, stay on the mark as it goes through the metal. The traditional center punch is used
with a hammer, has a heavier body than the prick punch.
 Automatic Center Punch
• The automatic center punch performs the same function as an ordinary center punch, but uses a spring tension mechanism
to create a force hard enough to make an indentation without the need for a hammer. The mechanism automatically strikes
a blow of the required force when placed where needed and pressed. This punch has an adjustable cap for regulating the
stroke; the point can be removed for replacement or sharpening. Never strike an automatic center punch with a hammer.
 Transfer Punch
• A transfer punch uses a template or existing holes in the structure to mark the locations of new holes.
 Drive Punch
• The drive punch is made with a flat face instead of a
point because it is used to drive out damaged rivets, pins,
and bolts that sometimes bind in holes.
 Pin Punch
• The pin punch typically has a straight shank
characterized by a hexagonal body.
 Chassis Punch
• A chassis punch is used to make holes in sheet metal
parts for the installation of instruments and other avionics
appliance, as well as making holes in ribs and spars.
 Awl
• A pointed tool for marking surfaces or for punching
small holes, an awl is used in aircraft maintenance to
place scribe marks on metal and plastic surfaces and to
align holes.
 Hand tools for sheet metal work
• Hammers
• hammers are oftenly used bynaircraft technicians in the repair and forming of sheet-metal aircraft parts. The
hammers are used for smoothing and forming sheet metal and are commonly called planishing hammers.
• Hand Nibbling Tool
• A hand nibbling tool is used to remove metal from small areas by cutting out small pieces of metal with each
“nibble.”
• Hole Saws
• A hole saw is a small, circular saw, the shank of which can be inserted in the chuck of a drill motor or drill
press. Several hole saws are shown in Figure.
 Chassis Punch
• Small holes may be punched in sheet metal with a chassis punch. The chassis punch includes a punch-and-die assembly
and a threading mechanism. The threads are in the punch and the bolt passes freely through a hole in the die. A hole is
drilled in the material in the center of the desired hole location.
 Rivet Gun and Set
• The rivet gun, or riveting hammer, is the device most commonly used by the aviation maintenance technician for driving
rivets. The rivet gun is equipped with a rivet set designed to fit the head of the rivet being driven. The set is inserted into
the set sleeve of the gun and is held in place by means of a retaining spring.
• Rivet sets are made in many sizes and shapes to meet different requirements for riveting and to provide for the different
types of rivets. The shank of a rivet set is the part inserted into the rivet gun. Shanks are made in uniform standard sizes to
fit standard rivet guns.
 Bucking Bars
• A bucking bar is a smooth steel bar made up in a variety of special shapes and sizes and used to form a head on the shank
of a rivet while it is being driven by a rivet gun. Bucking bars are sometimes called dollies, bucking irons, or bucking
blocks.
 Sheet Fasteners
• During the riveting process the sheets of metal must be held close together or the rivet will tend to expand between the
sheets and leave a gap, which reduces the strength of the joint and promotes the accumulation of moisture between the
sheets. This, of course, leads to corrosion. The tool designed to meet this need is called a sheet fastener and is quickly and
easily installed. Sheet fasteners are commonly called “Clecos,” a trade name applied by an early developer and
manufacturer of sheet fasteners.
• Hole Finder
• A hole finder is a tool used to locate the position of holes to be placed in replacement or repair material
relative to existing holes in aircraft structures or skin when the hole locations may not be more directly
transferred.
• Rivet Cutter
• A rivet cutter, shown in Fig. 8-48, is used to cut rivets to the proper length for a particular installation. The
cutter is hand operated.
 Floor and Bench machinery for sheet metal work
• Floor and bench machinery also called as shop tools.
• Due to size, weight, and/or power source, shop tools are usually in a fixed location, and the airframe part to be
constructed or repaired is brought to the tool.
Squaring Shear
• The squaring shear provides the airframe technician with a convenient means of cutting and squaring sheet metal.
Available as a manual, hydraulic, or pneumatic model, this shear consists of a stationary lower blade attached to a
bed and a movable upper blade attached to a crosshead.
• To make a cut with a foot shear, move the upper blade down by placing the foot on the treadle and pushing
downward. Once the metal is cut and foot pressure removed, a spring raises the blade and treadle

Power Squaring shears Foot operated Squaring shears

 Throatless Shears
• Throatless shears are shown in figure below they are usually made to cut sheet metal as thick as 10 gauge in mild
carbon steel and 12 gauge in stainless steel. For aluminum-alloy stock, they can cut much heavier sheets.
• The frame of the throatless shear is made so that sheets of any length can be cut and the metal can be turned in any
direction, allowing irregular lines to be followed or notches to be made without distorting the metal.

Throatless Shears
 Scroll Shears
• Scroll shears are used for cutting irregular lines on the inside of a sheet without cutting through to the edge.
• The upper cutting blade is stationary while the lower blade is movable. A handle connected to the lower blade
operates the machine
 Rotary Slitting Shears
• Rotary slitting shears consist of a frame with a deep throat fitted with circular, disk-shaped cutters fastened to
parallel shafts and connected with gears. The cutting wheels are operated by a crank or by a power-driven
wheel. Such shears are used for slitting sheet metal and cutting irregular curves and circles.
• The edge of the sheet is held against the gauge, and the end of the sheet is pressed against the cutting wheel.
The handle is turned until the full length of the strip has been cut.
• For irregular curves, the gauge is slid back out of the way and the handle is turned slowly; and at the same
time the operator keeps the cutting wheels on the line to be cut.
 Nibbling Machine (Nibbler)
• A nibbling machine (nibbler) is a machine with a die and a vertical cutting blade that travels up and down at a relatively
high speed. The stroke is longer and it is adjustable. This machine isused for cutting mild steel up to a thickness of 12 in
[12.7 mm] and to cut circles and curves of complex shapes in heavy sheets. The machine operates on the shearing
principle and leaves rough edges.
 Rotary Punch Press
• Used in the airframe repair shop to punch holes in metal parts, the rotary punch can cut radii in corners, make washers,
and perform many other jobs where holes are required.
• The machine is composed of two cylindrical turrets, one mounted over the other and supported by the frame, with both
turrets synchronized to rotate together. Index pins, which ensure correct alignment at all times, may be released from their
locking position by rotating a lever on the right side of the machine. This action withdraws the index pins from the
tapered holes and allows an operator to turn the turrets to any size punch desired.
• To operate the machine, place the metal to be worked between the die and punch. Pull the lever on the top of the machine
toward the operator, actuating the pinion shaft, gear segment, toggle link, and the ram, forcing the punch through the
metal. When the lever is returned to its original position, the metal is removed from the punch.
 Cornice Brake
• The cornice brake, also called a leaf brake, is a machine used to make simple bends in flat sheet-metal stock.
 Beading Machines
• The beading machine is used to turn beads on pipes, cans, buckets, etc., both for stiffening and for ornamental
purposes.
• It is also used on sheet-metal stock that is to be welded to prevent buckling and breaking of the metal.
• This machine was used extensively for aluminum oil lines on early aircraft to provide beads for holding
clamped rubber tubing.
 Beading of a Sheet Metal
• Beading is common in the edge treatment of sheet metal parts and can also be used to form the working
structure of parts, such as hinges. Beading forms a curl over a part's edge. This bead can be formed over a
straight or curved axis. There are many different techniques for forming a bead. Some methods form the bead
progressively, with multiple stages, using several different die arrangements. Other sheet metal beading
processes produce a bead with a single die. In a process called wiring, the metal's edge is bent over a wire.
How the bead is formed will depend on the specific requirements of the manufacturing process and sheet
metal part.
 RIVETS
• A rivet is a metal pin or bar with a cylindrical shank, used for fastening two or more pieces of metal together. The
metal pieces to be joined have holes of the proper size drilled through them. The shank of the rivet is inserted
through one of these holes. One end of the rivet has a head formed previously by the manufacturer. The size and
shape of the head are chosen to fit the requirements of the application.
• Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension loads (loads parallel to the
axis of the shaft); however, it is much more capable of supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft).

TYPES OF RIVETS
 Solid head rivets
• Counter shunk head
• Universal head
 Semi-tubular rivets
 Blind rivets
 Oscar rivets
 Drive rivet
 Flush rivet
 Friction-lock rivet
 Rivet alloys, shear strengths, and driving condition
 Self-pierce rivets
 Solid head rivets
• The solid shank rivet is the most common type of rivet used in aircraft construction. Used to join aircraft structures, solid
shank rivets are one of the oldest and most reliable types of fastener. Widely used in the aircraft manufacturing industry,
solid shank rivets are relatively low-cost, permanently installed fasteners. They are faster to install than bolts and nuts
since they adapt well to automatic, high-speed installation tools.
• There are mainly two types of solid rivets
• Counter shunk head
• Universal head

• The size (or diameter) of the selected rivet shank should correspond in general to the thickness of the material being
riveted. If an excessively large rivet is used in a thin material, the force necessary to drive the rivet properly causes an
undesirable bulging around the rivet head. On the other hand, if an excessively small rivet diameter is selected for thick
material, the shear strength of the rivet is not great enough to carry the load of the joint
Semi-tubular rivets
• Semi-tubular rivets (also known as tubular rivets) are similar to solid rivets, except they have a partial hole (opposite
the head) at the tip.
• The purpose of this hole is to reduce the amount of force needed for application by rolling the tubular portion
outward. The force needed to apply a semitubular rivet is about 1/4 of the amount needed to apply a solid rivet.
• The most common use of semitubular rivets is in lighting, brakes, ladders, mechanical products, and electronics.
They are offered from 1.6 mm to 9.5 mm in diameter (other sizes are considered highly special) and can be up to
8 inches (203 mm) long.
• A wide variety of materials and platings are available, most common base metals are steel, brass, copper, stainless,
aluminum and most common platings are zinc, nickel, brass, tin.
 Blind Rivets
• Blind rivets, commonly referred to as "pop" rivets (POP is the brand name of the original manufacturer).
• The rivet assembly is inserted into a hole drilled through the parts to be joined and a specially designed tool is
used to draw the rivet in hole.
• These types of blind rivets have non-locking arrangement and are sometimes avoided for critical structural joints.
• They are available in flat head, countersunk head, and modified flush head. Blind rivets are made from soft aluminum
alloy, steel (including stainless steel), copper, and Monel.
Drive rivet
• A drive rivet is a form of blind rivet. This is commonly used to rivet wood panels.
• They can also be used with plastic, metal, and other materials and require no special setting tool other than a hammer
and possibly a backing block (steel or some other dense material) placed behind the location of the rivet while
hammering it into place.
• Drive rivets have less clamping force than most other rivets. Drive screws, possibly another name for drive rivets, are
commonly used to hold nameplates into the holes. They typically have spiral threads that grip the side of the hole.
 Flush rivet
• A flush rivet is used primarily on external metal surfaces where good appearance and the elimination of
unnecessary aerodynamic drag are important. A flush rivet takes advantage of a countersink hole; they are also
commonly referred to as countersunk rivets. Countersunk or flush rivets are used extensively on the exterior of aircraft
for aerodynamic reasons as it not allow to raise the drag while installed. Additional post-installation machining may be
performed to perfect the airflow.

Friction-lock rivet
• These resemble an expanding bolt except the shaft snaps below the surface when the tension is sufficient. The
one end may be either countersunk ('flush') or dome shaped.
• A friction-lock rivet cannot replace a solid shank rivet, size for size. When a friction-lock is used to replace a
solid shank rivet, it must be at least one size larger in diameter because the friction-lock rivet loses considerable
strength if its center stem falls out due to vibrations or damage.
Self-pierce rivets
• Self-pierce riveting (SPR) is a process of joining two or more materials using an engineered rivet. Unlike solid, blind and
semi-tubular rivets, self-pierce rivets do not require a drilled or punched hole.
• SPRs are cold forged to a semi-tubular shape and contain a partial hole to the opposite end of the head. The end
geometry of the rivet has a chamfered poke that helps the rivet pierce the materials being joined. A hydraulic or electric
servo rivet setter drives the rivet into the material, and an upsetting die provides a cavity for the displaced bottom sheet
material to flow.
• The self-pierce rivet fully pierces the top sheet material(s) but only partially pierces the bottom sheet. As the tail end of
the rivet does not break through the bottom sheet it provides a water or gas tight joint.
• Rivets need to be harder than the materials being joined, they are heat treated to various levels of hardness depending on
the materials ductility and hardness. Rivets come in a range of diameters and lengths depending on the materials being
joined; head styles are either flush countersunk or pan heads.
• Riveting systems can be manual or automated depending on the application requirements; all systems are very flexible in
terms of product design and ease of integration into a manufacturing process.
• SPR joins a range of dissimilar materials such as steel, aluminum, plastics, composites and pre-coated or pre-painted
materials. Benefits include low energy demands, no heat, fumes, sparks or waste and very repeatable quality.
 Riveting Techniques
• There are several common methods or techniques for performing riveting operations. There is the standard
hand riveting with a bucking bar or a blind rivet.
• Three basic alternative methods of riveting are cold riveting, hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each
method is used to achieve different characteristics.
• In the standard riveting process and in cold or hot riveting a bucking bar is used at the bottom end of the rivet
to cause it to form a head when the rivet is driven through the hole. Bucking bars are of different weights
depending on the size of the rivet being used.
• In the cold riveting process the rivets are kept in a refrigerator until they are ready to be used. The rivet is
driven while it is still cold. While it is cold the rivet remains soft. The rivet will cure at room temperature and
become hardened. This process is necessary for rivets produced from certain aluminum alloys.
• The hot riveting process is done for the same reasons. The difference is the rivet will be at room temperature
before its use. When the rivet is needed it will be heated and then driven while it is still hot. When it cools
again it will return to its hardened state
• Automated riveting processes are cheaper, but due to lengthy setup time they are usually limited to one rivet
type. Automated riveting can include the hot or cold riveting methods.
 Riveting Procedure
• The riveting procedure consists of transferring and preparing the hole, drilling, and driving the rivets.
Hole Transfer
• Accomplish transfer of holes from a drilled part to another part by placing the second part over first and
using established holes as a guide. Using an alternate method, scribe hole location through from drilled
part onto part to be drilled, spot with a center punch, and drill.
Hole Preparation
• It is very important that the rivet hole be of the correct size and shape. If the hole is too small,
the protective coating is scratched from the rivet when the rivet is driven through the hole. If the hole is
too large, the rivet does not fill the hole completely.
Drilling
• Rivet holes in repair may be drilled with either a light power drill or a hand drill. The standard shank
twist drill is most commonly used. Drill bit sizes for rivet holes should be the smallest size that permits
easy insertion of the rivet, approximately 0.003-inch greater than the largest tolerance of the shank
diameter. Hole sizes for other fasteners are normally found on work documents, prints, or in manuals.
• Before drilling, center punch all rivet locations. The center punch mark should be large enough to prevent the drill
from slipping out of position, yet it must not dent the surface surrounding the center punch mark. Place a bucking
bar behind the metal during punching to help prevent denting. To make a rivet hole the correct size, first drill a
slightly undersized hole (pilot hole). Ream the pilot hole with a twist drill of the appropriate size to obtain the
required dimension.
 Driving the Rivet
• Although riveting equipment can be either stationary or portable, portable riveting equipment is the most
common type of riveting equipment used to drive solid shank rivets in airframe repair work.
• Before driving any rivets into the sheet metal parts, be sure all holes line up perfectly, all shavings and burrs
have been removed, and the parts to be riveted are securely fastened with temporary fasteners. Depending on
the job, the riveting process may require one or two people. In solo riveting, the riveter holds a bucking bar
with one hand and operates a riveting gun with the other.
• If the job requires two aircraft technicians, a shooter, or gunner, and a bucker work together as a team to
install rivets.
• An important component of team riveting is an efficient signaling system that communicates the status of the
riveting process. This signaling system usually consists of tapping the bucking bar against the work and is
often called the tap code. One tap may mean not fully seated, hit it again, while two taps may mean good
rivet, and three taps may mean bad rivet, remove and drive another. Radio sets are also available for
communication between the technicians.
• Once the rivet is installed, there should be no evidence of rotation of rivets or looseness of riveted parts. After
the trimming operation, examine for tightness. Apply a force of 10 pounds to the trimmed stem. A tight stem
is one indication of an acceptable rivet installation. Any degree of looseness indicates an oversize hole and
requires replacement of the rivet with an oversize shank diameter rivet. A rivet installation is assumed
satisfactory when the rivet head is seated snugly against the item to be retained (0.005-inch feeler gauge
should not go under rivet head for more than one-half the circumference) and the stem is proved tight.
 Sheet Metal Bending
• Bending is a manufacturing process that produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a straight axis
in ductile materials, most commonly sheet metal.
1. Sheet metal bending with a V die
2. Edge bending with wiping die
3. Air bending
4. Rotory bending of sheet metal
5. Offset bending sheet metal
6. Roll bending
Sheet metal bending with a V die
• One of the most common types of sheet metal manufacturing processes is V bending. The V shaped punch
forces the work into the V shaped die and hence bends it. This type of process can bend both very acute and
very obtuse angles, also anything in between, including 90 degrees.
• Edge bending is another very common sheet metal
process and is performed with a wiping die.
• Edge bending gives a good mechanical advantage when
forming a bend. However, angles greater than 90 degrees
will require more complex equipment, capable of some
horizontal force delivery.
• Also, wiping die employed in edge bending must have a
pressure pad. The action of the pressure pad may be
controlled separately than that of the punch.
• Basically the pressure pad holds a section of the work in
place on the die, the area for the bend is located on the
edge of the die and the rest of the work is held over space
like a cantilever beam.
• The punch then applies force to the cantilever beam
section, causing the work to bend over the edge of the die.
Rotary bending
• Rotary bending forms the work by a similar mechanism as edge bending. However, rotary bending uses a different
design than the wiping die. A cylinder, with the desired angle cut out, serves as the punch. The cylinder can rotate about
one axis and is securely constrained in all other degrees of motion by its attachment to the saddle. The sheet metal is
placed cantilevered over the edge of the lower die, similar to the setup in edge bending. Unlike in edge bending, with
rotary bending, there is no pressure pad. Force is transmitted to the punch causing it to close with the work. The groove
on the cylinder is dimensioned to create the correctly angled bend. The groove can be less than or greater than 90 degrees
allowing for a range of acute and obtuse bends. The cylinders V groove has two surfaces. One surface contacts the work
transmitting pressure and holding the sheet metal in place on the lower die. As force is transmitted through the cylinder it
rotates, causing the other surface to bend the work over the edge of the die, while the first surface continues to hold the
work in place. Rotary bending provides a good mechanical advantage.
• This process provides benefits over a standard edge bending operation, in that it eliminates the need for a pressure pad
and it is capable of bending over 90 degrees without any horizontally acting equipment. Rotary bending is relatively new
and is gaining popularity in manufacturing industry.
• Air bending is a simple method of creating a bend without
the need for lower die geometry. The sheet metal is
supported by two surfaces a certain distance apart. A
punch exerts force at the correct spot, bending the sheet
metal between the two surfaces.
• Punch and die are manufactured with certain geometries,
in order to perform specific bends. Channel bending uses
a shaped punch and die to form a sheet metal channel. A
U bend is made with a U shaped punch of the correct
curvature.
 Offset bending sheet metal
• Many bending operations have been developed to produce
offsets and form the sheet metal for a variety of different
functions.
 Sheet Metal Roll Forming
• Roll forming of sheet metal is a continuous manufacturing process, that uses rolls to bend a sheet metal cross
section of a certain geometry. Often several rolls may be employed, in series, to continuously bend stock.
Similar to shape rolling, but roll forming does not involve material redistribution of the work, only bending.
Like shape rolling, roll forming usually involves bending of the work in sequential steps. Each roll will form
the sheet metal to a certain degree, in preparation for the next roll. The final roll completes the geometry.
• Channels of different types, gutters, siding and panels for structural purposes are common items manufactured
in mass production by roll forming. Rolls are usually fed from a sheet metal coil. The entry roll is supplied as
the coil unwinds during the process. Once formed, continuous products can be cut to desired lengths to create
discrete parts. Closed sections such as squares and rectangles can be continuously bent from sheet metal coil.
Frames for doors and windows are manufactured by this method. Sheet metal coil is often roll bent into thin
walled pipe that is welded together, at its seam. The welding of the continuous product is incorporated into the
rolling process. Roll forming of channels is a continuous alternative to a discrete channel bending process,
such as the one illustrated in figure 269. Figure 279 shows a simple sequence used to produce a channel.
• This channel could be produced with a punch and die. However, in that case, the length of the channel would
be limited by the length of the punch and die. Roll forming allows for a continuous part, (limited practically to
the length of the sheet metal coil), that can be cut to whatever size needed. Productivity is also increased, with
the elimination of loading and unloading of work. Rolls for sheet metal roll forming are typically made of
grey cast iron or carbon steel. Lubrication is important and affects forces and surface finish. Sometimes rolls
will be chromium plated to improve surface quality.
 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS
 The classification of riveted joints is based on following :
(a) According to purpose,
(b) According to position of plates connected, and
(c) According to arrangement of rivets.

(A) According to purpose

 Strong Joints : In these joints strength is the only criterion. Joints in engineering structure such as beams, trusses and
machine frames are strong joints.
 Tight Joints : These joints provide strength as well as are leak proof against low pressures. Joints in reservoirs,
containers and tanks fall under this group.
 Strong Tight Joints : These are joints applied in boilers and pressure vessels and ensure both strength and leak
proofness.

(B) According to position of plates connected

 Lap joint: In this type the ends carrying the drillings of the two members are positioned such that their surfaces
slightly overlap. The riveting is then done through the coincident holes (see figure).
 Butt joint: Here, the two members or the elements are linked edge to edge in one straight line. The clamping is
produced using an external cover plate which is then riveted as above through the parallel drilled holes.
(c) According to arrangement of rivets
According to the number of rows of rivets and its arrangement, this joint is further classified as follow

Single riveted joint: In this type more than one

rivet are fixed along a single row typically in a
lap joint, while in a butt joint the rows may
appear from both the upper and the lower
surfaces.
Double riveted joint: When two rows of rivets
are included over a lap joint or when two rows
of rivets are utilized from both top and bottom
in a butt joint are referred to as double butt
joint.
Chain Riveted Joint: In this type the
accommodated rows of rivets may lie exactly
opposite to each other over straight lines.
Zig Zag Riveted Joint: Unlike the above type,
here the rows may appear staggered and not
complementing each other.
 Aluminum cutting techniques
• There are many machines that a fabricator can use when cutting aluminum. The three most prevalent ones are laser
machines, plasma machines, and waterjet machines.
 Laser Cutting Aluminum
• Lasers cutting machines are used on all types of sheet metal, including aluminum. The basic operation for laser cutting
involves directing a laser beam onto the material in the laser cutting tool’s bed. The beam of light heats up a precise area
as a nozzle pushes cutting gas onto the metal to vaporize the material, leaving a clean edge.
• Since laser machines generate heat and can become affected by the highly reflective surface of aluminum, you need to
tune down higher-powered lasers so they can perform more precise aluminum cutting. As a rule of thumb, only use lasers
to cut aluminum up to 8mm thick.
 Plasma Cutting Aluminum
• Plasma cutting is another method that fabricators use to precision cut aluminum materials. Plasma relies on a thermal
heating process that combines electrical charges and ionized gases to cut the metal. The ionized gas makes a negative
charge on the cutting device that reacts to the positively charged aluminum materials. This generates extreme heat, which
melts the metal apart.
• One of the major problems with using plasma for precision aluminum cutting is the intense heat. You can use variant
gases — such as helium and argon — to help the cutting process by cooling the aluminum piece and blowing away
molten parts.
• Many fabricators choose plasma cutting for aluminum because it is generally more cost-effective than laser cutting. It
works best when you need to cut a large amount of aluminum but don’t need the highest-quality edge.
 Waterjet Cutting Aluminum
• Waterjet cutting has become one of the go-to precision aluminum cutting methods for fabricators. This technique uses an
erosion process in which a supersonic jet of water, or water mixed with a type of abrasive material, cuts through the metal
surface. Since there is minimal heat generated during the waterjet cutting process, one doesn’t have to worry about thermal
conductivity or distorting the material.
• A waterjet is often used to make unusual shapes in metal as well as short-run prototypes as it can cut in any direction. The
only disadvantage of waterjet cutting is that cutting speed is diminished when working on thicker materials, although it can
handle most metals up to 10 inches thick — plenty for any sheet metal project involve precision aluminum cutting.

Joggling
• A joggle, often found at the intersection of stringers and formers, is the offset formed on a part to allow clearance for a sheet
or another mating part. Use of the joggle maintains the smooth surface of a joint or splice.
• The amount of offset is usually small; therefore, the depth of the joggle is generally specified in thousandths of an inch. The
thickness of the material to be cleared governs the depth of the joggle. In determining the necessary length of the joggle,
allow an extra 1⁄16-inch to give enough added clearance to assure a fit between the joggled, overlapped part. The distance
between the two bends of a joggle is called the allowance.
• When a joggle is necessary on a curved part or a curved flange, forming blocks or dies made of hardwood, steel, or
aluminum alloy may be used. The forming procedure consists of placing the part to be joggled between the two joggle
blocks and squeezing them in a vice or some other suitable clamping device. After the joggle is formed, the joggle blocks are
turned over in the vice and the bulge on the opposite flange is flattened with a wooden or rawhide mallet.