PowerPoint slides prepared by Leonard R.

Mendola, PhD
Touro College 1
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 Chapter 6: Sexuality
Outline
• Exploring Adolescent Sexuality
– A Normal Aspect of Adolescent Development
– The Sexual Culture
– Developing a Sexual Identity
– Obtaining Research Information about Adolescent
Sexuality
• Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior
– Self-Stimulation
– Contraceptive Use
2
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 Chapter 6: Sexuality
Outline
• Negative Sexual Outcomes in Adolescence
– Adolescent Pregnancy
– Sexually Transmitted Infections
– Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual Harassment
• Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
– Sexual Literacy
– Sources of Sex Information
– Cognitive Factors
– Sex Education in Schools

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 Preview

• During adolescence and emerging adulthood, the lives of

adolescents are wrapped in sexuality
• Adolescence and emerging adulthood are time frames
when individuals engage in sexual exploration and
incorporate sexuality into their identity
• In Chapter 2, we studied the biological basis of sexual
maturation, including the timing of these changes and the
hormones that are involved

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 Preview

• This chapter focuses on the sexual experiences, attitudes,

and behaviors of adolescents and emerging adults
• We begin with an overview of sexuality in adolescence
and emerging adulthood and then examine some
problems involving sexual activity, such as adolescent
pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and forcible
sex
• Next, we explore the ways in which adolescents learn
about sex

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 Exploring Adolescent Sexuality

• A Normal Aspect of Development

• The Sexual Culture
• Developing a Sexual Identity
• Obtaining Research Information about Sexual
Development

6
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 A Normal Aspect of Development

• Much of what we hear about adolescent sexuality

involves problems, such as adolescent pregnancy and
sexually transmitted infections
• Although there are significant concerns, it is important
not to lose sight of the fact that sexuality is a normal part
of adolescence (Tolman & McClelland, 2001)
• Every society pays some attention to adolescent sexuality
• Sexuality has ties to virtually all areas of adolescent
development

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 The Sexual Culture

• It is important to put adolescent sexuality into the broader

context of sexuality in the American culture (Carroll,
2010; Welch, 2011)
– In the U.S. culture, sex has mixed messages for youth

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 The Sexual Culture

• Media
– Sex is explicitly portrayed in movies, videos, lyrics of
popular music, MTV, and Internet web sites (Bersamin &
others, 2010); Nalkur, Jamieson, & Romer, 2010);
Strasburger, 2010; Tolman & McClelland, 2011)
– Adolescents increasingly have had access to sexually
explicit Web sites
– Adolescents and emerging adults use the Internet as a
resource for information about sexuality

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 Developing a Sexual Identity

• Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense

of sexual identity is multifaceted (Diamond & Savin-
Williams, 20011; Savin-Williams, 2011; Tolman &
McClelland, 2011)
• Sexual identity:
– Emerges in the context of physical factors, social factors,
and cultural factors
– Is strongly influenced by social norms related to sex
– Involves an indication of sexual orientation and involves
activities, interests, and styles of behavior

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 Obtaining Research Information about
Adolescent Sexuality
• Assessing sexual attitudes and behavior is not always a
straightforward matter (Hock, 2010; Saewyc, 2011)
• Research is limited by the reluctance of some individuals
to answer candid questions about extremely personal
matters
• When asked about their sexual activity, individuals may
respond truthfully or they may give socially desirable
answers
– Boys tend to exaggerate their sexual experiences to
increase perceptions of their sexual prowess, while girls
tend to play down their sexual experience so they won’t be
perceived as irresponsible or promiscuous (Diamond &
Savin-Williams, 2009) 11
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 Sexual Attitudes and Behavior

• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior

– Development of Sexual Activities in Adolescence
– Oral Sex
– Cross-Cultural Comparisons
– Sexual Scripts
– Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexuality
– Further Exploration of Sexuality in Emerging Adults

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 Sexual Attitudes and Behavior

• Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior

– Factors Associated with Sexual Minority Behavior
– Developmental Pathways
– Gay or Lesbian Identity and Disclosure
– Discrimination and Bias
• Self-Stimulation
• Contraceptive Use

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 Development of Sexual Activities in
Adolescents
• In a recent U.S. national survey conducted in 2009, 62%
of 12th-graders reported that they had experienced sexual
intercourse compared with 32% of 9th-graders (Eaton &
others, 2010)
• From 1991 to 2009, fewer adolescents reported ever
having had sexual intercourse
• Until very recently, at all grade levels, adolescent males
reported that they are more likely than adolescent
females to say that they have had sexual intercourse and
are sexually active (MMWR, 2006)
• Sexual initiation varies by ethnic group in the United
States (Santelli, Abraido-Lanza, & Melnikas, 2009) 14
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 Figure 6.1

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 Figure 6.2

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 Figure 6.3

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 Oral Sex

• Recent research indicates that oral sex is now a common

occurrence for U.S. adolescents (Brewster & Harker Tillman,
2008)
• In a recent editorial in the Journal of Adolescent Health,
Bonnie Halpern-Felsher (2008) discussed the pluses and
minuses of oral versus vaginal sex
– Oral sex negates the risk of pregnancy and is linked to fewer negative
outcomes than vaginal sex, but is related to such negative health
outcomes as sexually transmitted infections
• In recent research, Halpern-Felsher and her colleagues have
examined the merits of engaging in oral versus vaginal sex
(Brady & Halpern-Felsher, 2007; Song & Halpern-Felsher,
2010)
18
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 Figure 6.4

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 Cross-Cultural Comparisons

• The timing of teenage sexual initiation varies widely by

culture and gender, and in most instances is linked to the
culture’s values and customs (Carroll, 2010)
• Sexual activity patterns for 15- to 19-year-olds follow
very different patterns for males and females in almost
every geographic region of the world (Singh & others,
2000)

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 Sexual Scripts

• Sexual script: A stereotyped pattern of role prescriptions

for how individuals should behave sexually
– By the time individuals reach adolescence, girls and boys
have been socialized to follow different sexual scripts
– Differences in female and male sexual scripting can cause
problems and confusions for adolescents are they work out
their sexual identities

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 Sexual Scripts

• The majority of adolescent sexual experiences involve

the male’s making sexual advances, and it is up to the
female to set the limits on the male’s sexual overtures
• In her research, Deborah Tolman (2002) was struck by
how extensively a double standard still restricts girls’
sexuality

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 Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexuality

• Many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle

sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence
• Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors
(Jayakody & others, 2011; Yi & others, 2010)
• In addition to having sex in early adolescence, other risk
factors for sexual problems in adolescence include
contextual factors such as socioeconomic status (SES)
and poverty, family/parenting and peer factors, and
school-related influences (Van Ryzin & others, 2010)

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 Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexuality

• Cognitive factors are increasingly implicated in sexual

risk taking in adolescence (Fantasia, 2008)
– Two such factors are attention problems and self-regulation
• An increasing number of efforts utilizing a positive youth
development (PYD) focus to improve sexual outcomes in
adolescence are being implemented (Catalano, Gavin, &
Markham, 2010; Gavin & Catalano, 2010; House &
others, 2010; Markham & others, 2010)

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 Further Exploration of Sexuality in
Emerging Adults
• Emerging adulthood is a time frame during which most
individuals are “both sexually active and unmarried”
(Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006, p. 235)
• Individuals who become sexually active in adolescence
engage in more risky sexual behaviors in emerging
adulthood than their counterparts who delay their sexual
debuts until emerging adulthood (Capaldi & others, 2002)
• A recent meta-analysis revealed that men reported having
slightly more sexual experiences and more permissive
attitudes than women for most aspects of sexuality
(Petersen & Hyde, 2010)
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 Sexual Minority Attitudes & Behavior

• The majority of sexual minority (same-sex) individuals

experience their first same-sex attraction, sexual behavior,
and self-labeling as a gay male or lesbian during
adolescence (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009, 2011;
Saewyc, 2011)
• Until the middle of the 20th century, it was generally
believed that people were either heterosexual or
homosexual
– There has been a move away from using the term
“homosexual” because of negative historic connotations
(Carroll, 2010; Kelly, 2011)

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 Sexual Minority Attitudes & Behavior

– Sexual minority: Someone who identifies with being

lesbian, gay, or bisexual
– Bisexual: Someone who is attracted to people of both sexes

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 Factors Associated with Sexual
Minority Behavior
• Researchers have explored the possible biological basis of
sexual minority behavior
– The results of hormone studies have been inconsistent
– A very early critical period might influence sexual
orientation
• If this critical-period hypothesis turns out to be correct, it would
explain why clinicians have found that sexual orientation is difficult,
if not impossible, to modify (Meyer-Bahlburg & others, 1995)

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 Factors Associated with Sexual
Minority Behavior
• Researchers have also examined genetic influences on
sexual orientation by studying twins
• An individual’s sexual orientation is most likely
determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal,
cognitive, and environmental factors (Hyde & DeLamater,
2011; King, 2011)

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 Developmental Pathways

• It is commonly perceived that most gays and lesbians

quietly struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood,
do not engage in heterosexual dating, and gradually
recognize that they are gay or lesbian in mid to late
adolescence (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009, 2011)
– However, there is much more fluidity in sexual orientation
that this developmental milestone approach suggests
(Saewyc, 2011)
– Many youth do follow this developmental pathway, but
others do not

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 Developmental Pathways

• Sexual minority youth have diverse patterns of initial

attraction, often have bisexual attractions, and may have
physical or emotional attraction to same-sex individuals
but do not always fall in love with them (Diamond &
Savin-Williams, 2009)

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 Gay or Lesbian Identity and Disclosure

• Establishing a gay male or lesbian identity is often

referred to as the coming-out process (Savin-Williams,
2011)
• In one study of gay adolescents, the majority said that as
children they felt different from other boys (Newman &
Muzzonigro, 1993)
– About half the boys said they initially tried to deny their
identity as a gay male

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 Discrimination and Bias

• Homophobia: Having irrational negative feelings against

individuals who have same-sex attractions
• One of the harmful aspects of stigmatization of same-sex
attraction is the self-devaluation engaged in by sexual
minority individuals (Bos & Gartrell, 2010; Savin-
Williams & others, 2011)
– Passing: The process of hiding one’s real social identity

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 Discrimination and Bias

• A large-scale study found similarities and differences in

the lives of adolescents who are heterosexual, those who
have same-sex attractions, and those who are bisexual
(Busséri & others, 2006)
• A recent research review concluded that there are mixed
results as to whether overall sexual minority adolescents
are likely to attempt suicide or not (Saewyc, 2011)
• Recent research also indicates that sexual minority
adolescents are more likely to develop substance abuse
problems, engage in sexual risk-taking, and be targeted
for violence (Saewyc, 2011)
34
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 Discrimination and Bias

• In conclusion, many sexual minority adolescents

experience discrimination and rejection in interactions
with their families, peers, schools, and communities
(Halpern, 2011)
– Sexual minority youths’ exposure to stigma and
discrimination is the main reason given as to why they are
more likely to develop problems (Saewyc, 2011)
• Despite these negative circumstances, many sexual
minority adolescents successfully cope with the
challenges they face and develop levels of health and
well-being that are similar to their heterosexual peers
(Saewyc, 2011)
35
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 Self-Stimulation

• Masturbation is the most frequent sexual outlet for many

adolescents, especially male adolescents
• Adolescents today do not feel as guilty about
masturbation as they once did, although they still may
feel embarrassed or defensive about it
– Today, as few as 15% of adolescents attach any stigma to
masturbation (Hyde & DeLamater, 2011)
• Much of the existing data on masturbation are difficult to
interpret because they are based on self-reports in which
many adolescents may be responding accurately

36
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 Contraceptive Use

• Many sexually active adolescents still do not use

contraceptives, or they use them inconsistently (Tschann
& others, 2010)
– Younger adolescents are less likely than older adolescents
to take contraceptive precautions
• Researchers have also found that U.S. adolescents use
condoms less than their counterparts in Europe
– Pill use also continues to be higher in European countries
(Santelli, Sandfort, & Orr, 2009)
– Such comparisons provide insight into why adolescent
pregnancy rates are much higher in the United States than
in European countries
37
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 Negative Sexual Outcomes in
Adolescence
• Adolescent pregnancy
– Incidence of Adolescent
Pregnancy
– Trends in U.S. Adolescent
Pregnancy Rates
– Abortion
– Consequences of Adolescent
Pregnancy
– Adolescents as Parents
– Reducing Adolescent
Pregnancy
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• Sexually transmitted
infections
– HIV and AIDS
– Genital Herpes
– Genital Warts
– Gonorrhea
– Syphilis
– Chlamydia
• Forcible sexual behavior and
sexual harassment
– Forcible Sexual Behavior
– Sexual Harassment 38
 Incidence of Adolescent Pregnancy

• Each year more than 200,000 females in the United

States have a child before their eighteenth birthday
• The United States continues to have one of the highest
adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the
industrialized world, despite a considerable decline in the
1990s (Cooksey, 2009)
• Why are U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates so high?
– Three reasons based on cross-cultural studies are as
follows (Boonstra, 2002, pp. 9-10):
• Childbearing regarded as adult activity
• Clear messages about sexual behavior
• Access to family planning services
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 Trends in U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy
Rates
• In 2004, births to adolescent girls fell to a record low
(Child Trends, 2006)
– The rate of births to adolescent girls dropped 34% from
1991 to 2005
– The birth rate increased in 2006 and 2007, but resumed its
decline by 2% in 2008
• Likely reasons for these declines include:
– Increased contraceptive use
– Fear of sexually transmitted infections
– School/community health classes
– Greater hope for future
40
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 Figure 6.5

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 Trends in U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy
Rates
• Ethnic variations characterize adolescent pregnancy
(Casares & others, 2010)
– Latina adolescents are more likely than African American
and non-Latina White adolescents to become pregnant
– Daughters of teenage mothers are at risk for teenage
childbearing
• The proportion of adolescent births that are non-marital
has increased (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2010)
– Two factors are responsible for this trend:
• Marriage in adolescence has now become quite rare
• Pregnancy is no longer seen as a reason for marriage

42
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 Figure 6.6

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 Figure 6.7

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 Abortion

• Impassioned debate characterizes abortion in the United

States today, and this debate is likely to continue in the
foreseeable future
• Abortion is easier to obtain in some countries, most
notably the Scandinavian countries, than in the United
States, where abortion and adolescent sexual activity are
more stigmatized
• In 2006, 27% of teen pregnancies ended in abortion
(Guttmacher Institute, 2010)

45
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 Abortion

• Legislation mandating parental consent for an adolescent

girl’s abortion has been justified by several assumptions:
– High risk of harm from abortion
– Adolescents’ inability to make an adequately informed
decision
– Benefits of parental involvement

46
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 Abortion

• Legal abortion in the United States itself carries few risks

if performed in the first trimester of pregnancy, especially
compared with the risks of childbearing, for adolescent
girls
• In terms of psychological risks, a recent study revealed
that abortion did not lead to mental health problems for
adolescents girls (Warren & others, 2010)
• Other studies have found that adolescents are not
psychologically harmed by their abortion experience
(Pope, Adler, & Tschann, 2001; Quinton, Major, &
Richards, 2001)
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 Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy

• Infants born to adolescent mothers are more likely to be

born preterm and low birth weights – a prominent factor in
infant mortality—as well as neurological problems and
childhood illness (Khashan, Baker, & Kenny, 2010)
• Adolescent mothers often drop out of school
• It often is not pregnancy alone that leads to negative
consequences for an adolescent mother and her offspring
– Adolescent mothers are more likely to come from low-SES
backgrounds (Molina & others, 2010)
– Many adolescent mothers also were not good students
before they became pregnant (Malamitsi-Puchner &
Boutsikou, 2006) 48
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 Adolescents as Parents

• Children of adolescent parents face problems even before

they are born (Chedraui, 2008)
– Only one of every five adolescent girls receives any prenatal
care at all during the important first three months of
pregnancy
• Adolescent mothers are less competent at child rearing
and have less realistic expectations for their infants’
development than do older mothers (Osofsky, 1990)
• Children born to adolescent mothers do not perform as
well on intelligence tests and have more behavioral
problems than children born to mothers in their twenties
(Silver, 1988) 49
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 Adolescents as Parents

• Although some adolescent fathers are involved with their

children, the majority are not
• Adolescent fathers have lower incomes, less education,
and more children than do men who delay having children
until their twenties

50
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 Reducing Adolescent Pregnancy

• Serious, extensive efforts are needed to reduce adolescent

pregnancy and to help pregnant adolescents and young
mothers enhance their educational and occupational
opportunities (Graves & others, 2010; Tortolero & others,
2010)
• John Conger (1988) offered four recommendations for
reducing the high rate of adolescent pregnancy:
– Sex education and family planning
– Access to contraceptive methods
– The life options approach
– Broad community involvement and support
51
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 Sexually Transmitted Infections

• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): Infections that

are contracted primarily through sexual contact
• STIs are an increasing health problem
– Recent estimates indicate that while 15- to 24-year-olds
represent only 25% of the sexually experienced U.S.
population, they acquire nearly 50% of all new STIs (CDC,
2009a)
• Among the main STIs adolescents can get are three caused
by viruses – AIDS, genital herpes , and genital warts – and
three caused by bacteria – gonorrhea, syphilis, and
chlamydia
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 HIV and AIDS

• No single STI has caused more deaths, had a greater

impact on sexual behavior, or created more public fear in
recent decades, than HIV (Welch, 2011)
• AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): A
sexually transmitted infection that is caused by human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which destroys the body’s
immune system
• Worldwide, the greatest concern about AIDS is sub-
Saharan Africa, where it has reached epidemic proportions
– AIDS also has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number
of African children and adolescents who are orphaned and
left to care for themselves because their parents acquired the
disease 53
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 HIV and AIDS

• In the United States, prevention is especially targeted at

groups that show the highest incidence of AIDS
– Drug users
– Individuals with other STIs
– Young gay males
– Individuals living in low-income circumstances
– Latinos and African Americans
• In recent years, there has been increased heterosexual
transmission of HIV in the United States
• There are some differences in AIDS cases in U.S.
adolescents, compared with AIDS cases in U.S. adults
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 HIV and AIDS

• HIV can be transmitted only by:

– Sexual contact
– Sharing of needles
– Blood transfusion (which has been tightly monitored)
(Kelly, 2011)

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 Figure 6.8

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 Genital Herpes

• Caused by a large family of viruses with many different

strains, some of which produce other, nonsexually
transmitted diseases such as cold sores, chicken pox, and
mononucleosis
– Three to five days after contact, itching and tingling can
occur, followed by an eruption of painful sores and blisters
– The virus can pass through nonlatex condoms as well as
contraceptive foams and creams
• It is estimated that approximately 20% of adolescents have
genital herpes (CDC, 2009a)
• There is no known cure
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 Genital Warts

• Caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV), which is

difficult to test for and does not always produce symptoms
but is very contagious
– Genital warts usually appear as small, hard, painless bumps
on the penis, in the vaginal area, or around the anus

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 Genital Warts

• HPV is the most commonly acquired STI in the 15- to 24-

year-old age group
• Treatment involves the use of a topical drug, freezing, or
surgery
– Genital warts may return despite treatment, and in some
cases are linked to cervical and other genital cancers
– In 2010, the CDC recommended that all 11- and 12-year-
old, and 13- to 26-year-old, females be given a three-dose
HPV vaccine

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 Gonorrhea

• An STI that is commonly called the “drip” or the “clap,”

caused by bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae
– The bacterium is spread by contact between the infected
moist membranes of one individual and the membranes of
another
• Although the incidence has declined, it is estimated that
more than 400,000 new cases appear each year in the 15-
to 24-year-old age group (Weinstock, Berman, & Cates,
2004)
• Early symptoms are more likely to appear in males – a
discharge from the penis and burning during urination
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 Gonorrhea

• Early symptoms in females – a mild, sometimes irritating

vaginal discharge
• Can be successfully treated in its early stages with
penicillin or other antibiotics

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 Syphilis

• An STI caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum

– It is transmitted by penile-vaginal, oral-genital, or anal
contact
– It can also be transmitted from a pregnant woman to her
fetus after the fourth month of pregnancy
• Syphilis rates have increased in U.S. 15- to 24-year-old
males and females from 2004 to 2008 (CDC, 2009a)
• If untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases
• In its early phases, syphilis can be effectively treated with
penicillin

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 Chlamydia

• One of the most common of all STIs, named for

Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that spreads by
sexual contact and infects the genital organs of both sexes
• Incidence is much higher than gonorrhea and syphilis;
chlamydia is highly infectious
– Women run a 70% risk of contracting it in a single sexual
encounter with an infected partner
– The male risk is estimated at between 25 and 50%

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 Chlamydia

• Many females have few or no symptoms; possible

symptoms in males are a discharge from the penis and
burning during urination
– If the infection goes untreated and spreads to the upper
reproductive tract, it can cause pelvic inflammatory disease
– Some researchers suggest that Chlamydia is the number one
preventable cause of female infertility

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual
Harassment
• Too many adolescent girls and young women report that
they believe they don’t have adequate sexual rights (East
& Adams, 2002)
– These include:
• The right not to have sexual intercourse when they don’t wish to
• The right to tell a partner that he is being too rough
• The right to use any form of birth control during intercourse

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

• Rape: Forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does

not give consent
– Legal definitions of rape vary from state to state
– Because of the difficulties involved in reporting rape, the
actual incidence is not easily determined (Wolitzky-Taylor
& others, 2010)
• Why is rape so pervasive in the American culture?
– Feminist writers assert that males are socialized to be
sexually aggressive, to regard females as inferior beings, and
to view their own pleasure as the most important objective

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

– Researchers have found the following characteristics

common among rapists:
• Aggression enhances their sense of power or masculinity
• They are angry at females generally
• They want to hurt their victims

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

• Date, or acquaintance rape: Coercive sexual activity

directed at someone whom the perpetrator knows
– A form of rape that went unacknowledged until recent
decades
– An increasing problem in high schools and on college
campuses (Alleyne & others, 2011; Ball, Kerig, &
Rosenbluth, 2009)

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

– Factors associated with sexual victimization (Fisher,

Cullen, & Turner, 2000):
• Living on campus
• Being unmarried
• Getting drunk frequently
• Having been sexually victimized on a prior occasion

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 Figure 6.9

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

• Rape is a traumatic experience for the victim and those

closer to her or him (Gannon & others, 2008)
• As victims strive to get their lives back to normal, they
might experience depression, fear, and anxiety for months
or years (Zinzow & others, 2010)
• A girl’s or woman’s recovery depends on both her coping
abilities and her psychological adjustment prior to the
assault (Macy, Nurius, & Norris, 2006)

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 Forcible Sexual Behavior

– Important factors in recovery include social support from

parents, partner, and others close to her, and the availability
of professional counseling
• Although most victims of rape are girls and women, rape
of boys and men does occur

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 Sexual Harassment

• Girls and women encounter sexual harassment in many

different forms – ranging from sexist remarks and covert
physical contact (patting, brushing against bodies) to
blatant propositions and sexual assaults (Taylor, Stein, &
Burden, 2010)
• Literally millions of girls and women experience such
sexual harassment each year in educational and work
settings

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 Sexual Harassment

• In a policy guide published by the Office for Civil Rights

in the U.S. Department of Education, a distinction is made
between quid pro quo and hostile environment sexual
harassment (Chmielewski, 1997):
– Quid pro quo sexual harassment: Occurs when a school
employee threatens to base an educational decision (such as
a grade) on a student’s submission to unwelcome sexual
conduct
– Hostile environment sexual harassment: Occurs when
students are subjected to unwelcome sexual conduct that is
so severe, persistent, or pervasive that it limits the students’
ability to benefit from their education
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 Sexual Harassment

• Sexual harassment is a form of power and dominance of

one person over another, which can result in harmful
consequences for the victim

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 Sexual Literacy and Sex Education

• Sexual Literacy
• Sources of Sex Information
• Cognitive Factors
• Sex Education in Schools

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 Sexual Literacy

• According to June Reinisch (1990), director of the Kinsey

Institute for Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, U.S. citizens
know more about how their automobiles function than
about how their bodies function sexually
• Sexual information is abundant, but much of it is
misinformation
• In some cases, even sex education teachers display sexual
ignorance

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 Sources of Sex Information

• Adolescents can get information about sex from many

sources, including parents, siblings, other relatives,
schools, peers, magazines, television, and the Internet
• A special concern is the accuracy of sexual information
adolescent have access to on the Internet
• Many parents feel uncomfortable talking about sex with
adolescents, and many adolescents feel uncomfortable
about this as well (Guilamo-Ramos & others, 2008)
• Those who can talk with their parents openly and freely
about sex are less likely to be sexually active (Chia-Chen
& Thompson, 2007)
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 Cognitive Factors

• With their developing idealism and ability to think in

more abstract and hypothetical ways, some young
adolescents may become immersed in a mental world far
removed from reality
– They may see themselves as omnipotent and indestructible
and believe that bad things cannot or will not happen to
them
• However, increasingly it is recognized that a majority of
adolescents see themselves as more vulnerable than
invulnerable (Fischoff & others, 2010)

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 Cognitive Factors

• Informing adolescents about contraceptives is not enough

– What seems to predict whether or not they will use
contraceptives is their acceptance of themselves and their
sexuality
– This acceptance requires not only emotional maturity but
cognitive maturity
• Prevention is based on the belief that adolescents have the
cognitive ability to approach problem solving in a
planned, organized, and analytical manner
– Although many adolescents 16 years of age and older have
these capacities, it does not mean they use them
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 Sex Education in Schools

• 89% of parents in Minnesota recommended teaching

adolescents about both abstinence and comprehensive sex
education that includes contraception information
(Eisenberg & others, 2008)
• 93% of Americans support the teaching of sex education
in high schools, and 84% support its teaching in
middle/junior high schools (SIECUS, 1999)
• The dramatic increase in HIV/AIDS and other STIs is the
main reason that Americans have increasingly supported
sex education in schools in recent years

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 Sex Education in Schools

• U.S. schools today is increasingly focused on abstinence

and are less likely to present students with comprehensive
teaching that includes information about birth control,
abortion, and sexual orientation (Hampton, 2008)

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 What is the Most Effective Sex
Education?
• Two recent research reviews found that abstinence-only
programs do not delay the initiation of sexual intercourse
and do not reduce HIV risk behaviors (Kirby, Laris, &
Rolleir, 2007; Underhill, Montgomery, & Operario, 2007)
• A recent study revealed that adolescents who experienced
comprehensive sex education were less likely to report
adolescent pregnancies than those who were given
abstinence-only sex education or no education (Kohler,
Manhart, & Lafferty, 2008)

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 What is the Most Effective Sex
Education?
• A number of leading experts on adolescent sexuality now
conclude that sex education programs that emphasize
contraceptive knowledge do not increase the incidence of
sexual intercourse and are more likely to reduce the risk of
adolescent pregnancy and STIs than abstinence-only
programs (Constantine, 2008; Eisenberg & others, 2008;
Hampton, 2008; Hyde & DeLamater, 2011)

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 What is the Most Effective Sex
Education?
• The contrast between the U.S. and other Western nations
is remarkable (Hampton, 2008)
• The Swedish State Commission on Sex Education
recommends that students gain knowledge to help them to
experience sexual life as a source of happiness and
fellowship with others
– Swedish adolescents are sexually active at an earlier age
than are American adolescents, and they are exposed to
even more explicit sex on TV

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 What is the Most Effective Sex
Education?
– The Swedish National Board of Education has developed a
curriculum to give every child, beginning at age 7, a
thorough grounding in reproductive biology and, by the age
of 10 or 12, information about various forms of
contraception
• The adolescent pregnancy rate in Sweden is one of the
lowest in the world

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 E-LEARNING TOOLS

To help you master the material in this chapter,

visit the Online Learning Center for
Adolescence, 14th edition at:

http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka14e

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