DNA is composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES, which are

composed of three sub-molecules:

1. Pentose Sugar (deoxyribose)

2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)
DNA is composed of two
complimentary strands of nucleotides
joined by hydrogen bonds:

Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A)

They join with 2 hydrogen bonds

Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C)

They join with 3 hydrogen bonds

DNA twists into a double helix

1. DNA directs the machinery of a cell to make specific
proteins, and, therefore, DNA indirectly controls all of the
functioning of all living things.
2. DNA has the ability to mutate (change). This allows for
new characteristics and abilities to appear which may help
an individual to survive and reproduce (EVOLUTION).
3. Self replication: DNA has the ability to
make copies of itself
1. DNA replication is called ‘semi-conservative’.
2. Semi-conservative replication is the process in which the
original strands of DNA remain intact and act as
templates for the synthesis of duplicate strands of DNA.
3. One copy of a DNA molecule will split apart to make two
complete copies of itself. Each new DNA molecule is
made up of half of the old molecule and half of a new
molecule.
1. UNZIPPING: The DNA molecule ‘Unzips’
as the hydrogen bonds between the base
pairs are broken. The enzyme
HELICASE causes this unzipping to occur.
2. COMPLEMENTARY
BASE PAIRING:
Complementary
nucleotides move into
position to bond with the
complementary bases on
the DNA chain.
3. FORM NEW SUGAR PHOSPHATE BACKBONE: The
nucleotides join as the sugars and phosphates bond to
form a new backbone. This process occurs due to the
enzyme DNA POLYMERASE which also checks for
mistakes as it goes.
4. This process continues along the primary chain until we
have 2 IDENTICAL STRANDS of DNA molecules
(assuming there have been no errors made).
1) Mutations can occur
naturally or through
environmental factors.

Environmental mutagens
include some chemicals
(food additives, pesticides,
plastics) and radiations
(X-rays to UV light).
2) A gene mutation is a change of one or more
nucleotides in a single gene. There are 3 types.

a) Addition
b) Deletion
c) Substitution
 GENE MUTATIONS
Deletion: one nucleotide base is left out. All of the amino acids after
a deletion will be wrong, so SHAPE and FUNCTION of protein are altered.
Serious.

Addition: one extra nucleotide base is added. This will also change
the entire amino acid sequence of the protein, so SHAPE and FUNCTION
of protein are altered. Serious.
(from Greek πολύς (polys),
meaning 'many', and δάκτυλος
(daktylos), meaning 'finger')
Substitution: when single bases or short pieces are replaced with
one another.
Example: Sickle-Cell Anemia, only one nucleotide base is switched.
This causes only 1 amino acid to change, but it is an important one.
This type of mutation is usually not as serious as the 1st two. It just
depends on which amino acid is affected (does it have an ‘R’ group with
a +,-, or S group?)
3. Chromosomal mutations: a mutation of all or part
of a chromosome. These affect many genes.

Example #1: crossing

over where one part of a
chromosome changes
places with another.
This can cause extra
pieces, missing pieces, or
the exchange of pieces of
chromosomes.
Example #2:
non-disjunction = extra
chromosomes or missing
chromosomes due to
mistakes made during
meiosis.