Energy Management

in
Electrical Systems
 Topics
• Demand control
• Power factor correction
• Load scheduling/shifting
• Motor drives-motor efficiency testing
• Energy efficient motors
• Motor speed control
• Lighting- lighting levels, efficient options,
fixtures, day lighting
 Transmission & Distribution
Generation Cascade efficiency from generation to end user
(n1)
= n1n2n3n4n5n6n7

Step up EHV Transmission HV Transmission

Transformer (n2) (n3) (n4)

Primary Distribution Station Sub-Transmission

Distribution (n7) (n6) (n5)

Cascade Efficiency From Transmission to Distribution up to end user is

End User Premises n2 to n7
0.99 × 0.99 × 0.97 × 0.96 × 0.99 × 0.95 = 87%

The standard technical losses are around 17 % in India. n= 83 %

Many of the states shows T&D losses ranging from 17 – 50%.
Typical Industrial User

0.83 (At User Side from

Distribution Network)
x 0.95(Transformer Eff.)
x 0.9(Motor Eff.)
x 0.70(Mechanical Eff.)
= 0.50 (efficiency)

1 Unit / 0.5 eff. = 2 Unit

One unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units
generated in the power plant
 Power

• Apparent Power - kVA - Product of kilovolt and amperes. This

measures the electrical load on a circuit or system. It is also called
as apparent power
• Active power –KW - The work producing part of apparent power
• Reactive power – KVAR - The portion of apparent power that does
no work. This type of power must be supplied to all types of
magnetic equipments, such as motors, transformers etc to create
and maintain magnetic field.
• Power factor is the ratio of the active power to apparent power
 Power factor
• Current lags the voltage like in inductive loads, it
is called lagging power factor
• When current leads the voltage like capacitive
loads, it is called leading power factor
• Lower the power factor, electrical network is
loaded with more current
• High power factor (close to 1) – network carries
only active power
• PF improvement is done by installing capacitor
near the load centers, work as reactor power
generators, Known as PF Correction Capacitors
Example

• A chemical industry had installed a 1500 kVA transformer.

• The initial demand of the plant was 1160 kVA with power factor of 0.70.
(Angle is Cos -1 Φ)
• The % loading of transformer was about 78% (1160/1500 = 77.3%).
• KW=Cos Φ X KVA(1160) = 812, KVAR = Sin Φ X KVA = 828
• To improve the power factor and to avoid the penalty, the unit had added
about 410 kVAr in motor load end.
• New KVAR = 828-410= 418
• This improved the power factor to 0.89, and reduced the required kVA to
913 , which is the vector sum of kW(812) and kVAr(418).
• Now Loading of Transformer is 60%(913/1500), So Additional Load can be
added in the plant.
The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition

• Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the

total current in the system from the source end.
• I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of
reduction in current.
• Voltage level at the load end is increased.
• kVA loading on the source generators as also on the
transformers and lines up to the capacitors reduces giving
capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilizing the full
capacity of your electrical system.
Cost benefits of PF improvement:

While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs

for capacitor addition the benefits to be quantified for feasibility
analysis are:

• Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill

• Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
• Better voltage at motor terminals and improved
performance of motors
• A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed
when operating with a low power factor
• Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables,
switchgears etc for delivering load is reduced.
Direct Calculation for KVAR Capacitor required for
desired PF Improvement:

KVAR Rating = KW ( tanΦ1 – tanΦ2)

Where Φ1 is Cos -1 PF(Current) and Φ2 is Cos -1 PF(Desired)

Alternately a Table for Selection of Capacitor can be used.

 Location of Capacitor
• C1A is recommended for
new installation, since the
maximum benefit is derived
and the size of the motor
thermal protector is
reduced.

• Case C1B is recommended in

cases where the installation
already exists and the
thermal protector does not
need to be re-sized.

• Case C1C recommended

when the capacitor is
permanently connected to
the circuit but does not
require a separate switch,
since capacitor can be
disconnected by the breaker
before the starter.
Electricity Billing

• The electricity billing by utilities for medium

and large enterprises, in High Tension (HT)
category, is often done on two- part tariff
structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or
demand) drawn and the second part for actual
energy drawn during the billing cycle.
 Tariff structure
• Maximum demand charges : For Max Demand
Registered during a billing month
• Energy charges - Kwh
• Power factor penalty/bonus rates
• Fuel cost adjustment charges
• Electricity duty charges
• Meter rentals
• Time of Day (Peak and Non Peak Hours Consumption)
• Penalty for exceeding contract demand
• Surcharge
Load management and demand control
• Analysis of electricity bill data and monitoring
trends helps energy manager to identify ways for
electricity bill reduction
• The utilities use the tariff structure to influence
end user in better load management
– Time of use tariff – Like Peak and Non Peak Period
– Penalties on exceeding allowed maximum demand
– Night tariff concessions
• Load management is a powerful means of
efficiency improvement both for end user as well
as utility
Maximum Demand and its Control:
Maximum demand is not instantaneous
demand, but time integral of the
demand over a predefined period.
For Example, 30 Minutes Recording cycle
for Maximum Demand Measurement
has noticed ;
• 2500 kVA for 4 minutes
• 3600 kVA for 12 minutes
• 4100 kVA for 6 minutes
• 3800 kVA for 8 minutes
Then Maximum Demand will be
Approach for Maximum Demand Control
• Load curve generation
• Rescheduling of loads(Running in
Different Shifts) – Get Information
from Operation Flow Chart
• Storage of products/in process utilities
like refrigeration
• Shedding of Non-essential loads
(Looking at Maximum Demand
Reaching to its preset limit, shedding Utilities encourage it by applying
can be implemented) automated Load • Time of Use Rates to the Users.
Shedding can be also done. • Night Use Tariffs Concession &
• Operation of Captive generation and • Penalty on Exceeding the Peak
diesel generation set( Use such Sets Maximum Demand.
when Demand reaches to its peak
value)
• Reactive power compensation, by
using Capacitor bank
Load Scheduling:
 Scheduling the loads to reduce the electric energy consumption and or
the maximum demand.
 It is basically optimizing the processes/loads to improve the system
load factor. Load-management procedures involve changes to
equipment and/or consumption patterns on the customer side.
 There are many methods of load management which can be followed
by an industry or a utility, such as
• load shedding and restoring,
• load shifting,
• power wheeling,
• installing energy-efficient processes and equipment,
• energy storage devices,
• co-generation and non-conventional sources of energy
• reactive power-control
Load Shifting:
 In this technique, the total processes (loads) are
rescheduled, and not switched off, in such a way to
reduce the peak demand and improve the load factor.
 It is not possible to reschedule all the processes or shift
certain types of loads.
 So the load-shifting technique has to select the loads
which can be shifted or processes which can be
rescheduled.
 Constraints like interlocked processes and storage-
space limitations will have to be studied in detail
before implementing the techniques.
Interlocked processes
• In the example shown in Figure two loads, L1 the conveyer and L2 the
heater and crusher processes of a fertilizer and chemical plant, are
shown.
• The conveyor is loading the heater and crusher. Being continuous, these
two loads are interlocked and cannot be controlled independently.
• For any LM program, both loads will have to be controlled together.
• We cannot shift process L1 or L2 independently.
• If required, we have to shift these two processes together.
Maximum Demand Controller
 Maximum Demand Controller

• Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a preset

value.
• If corrective action is not taken, the controller switches off
non-essential loads in a logical sequence.
• This sequence is predetermined by the user and is
programmed jointly by the user and the supplier of the
device.
• The plant equipments selected for the load management
are stopped and restarted as per the desired load profile.
• Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable
control contactors. Audio and visual annunciations could
also be used.
 Harmonics

• Devices that draw non-sinusoidal currents

when a sinusoidal voltage is applied create
harmonics
– Computers, UPS, Electronics ballasts, VFD
– Discharge light, Arc furnaces
– Transformer operating near saturation level,
induction heating equipment
– TV sets, ACs, washing machines, microwaves,
printers
 Problems due to harmonics
• Blinking of Incandescent lights
• Transformer saturation
• Capacitor failure
• Circuit breakers tripping
• Voltage distortion, voltage drop
 Motors
• Convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy by the interaction between the
magnetic fields set up in the stator and rotor
windings
– Induction motor
– DC motor
– Synchronous motors
 Motors Characteristics
• Synchronous speed
• Slip
• Power factor
NS  N kW
NS 
120 f Slip  PF  cos  
NS kVA
P
 Motor efficiency
• The ratio of the mechanical energy delivered
at the rotating shaft to the electrical energy
input at its terminals
– Fixed losses
• Magnetic core loss, friction and windage losses
– Variable losses
• Resistance losses in stator and rotor and stray losses
• Efficiency and power factors are very low at
low loads
Motor Efficiency and Speed Vs Power Factor Characteristics
 Energy Efficient Motors
• Design improvements are incorporated to
increase efficiency over motors of standard
design
– Use of lower loss steel
– A longer core
– Thicker wires
– Thinner laminations
– Small air gap between stator and rotor
– Copper instead of aluminum bars in rotor
– Superior bearings
 Energy Efficient Motors
• Designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads
between 75 % to 100 %
• PF is same or above than for standard motors
• Lower operating temperature and noise levels
• Greater ability to accelerate higher-inertia loads
• Less affected by supply voltage fluctuations
• Costs of EEM are higher than those of standard motors,
higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved
operating costs particularly in new applications or end-
of-life motor replacements
 Factors affecting motor efficiency
• Power supply quality
– Voltage frequency variation, voltage unbalance
• Motor loading
– Under loading- lower efficiency and power factor
• Sizing of variable load
– Rating of motor selected lower than the peak anticipated
and would operate at overload for a short period of time
• Power factor correction
• Maintennance
• Age
 Voltage fluctuation
• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specify that a
motor should be capable of delivering its rated
output with voltage variation of ± 6 % and
frequency ± 3 %
• Voltage rise – Starting torque increase, power
factor decrease, starting current increase, full
load current decrease
• Voltage sag – Starting torque decrease, power
factor increase, starting current reduce, full load
current increase
 Motor loading
Input power drawn by the motor at existing load
%Loading = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
Name plate full load kW rating

Reasons for underloading

• Selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the
desired level even when input voltages are abnormally low
• Selection of larger motor for an application requiring high starting torque
where a special motor, designed for high torque, would have been suitable
• Under-utilization of the equipment
 Sizing of variable load
• The optimum rating of the motor would be selected on the
basis of load duration curve
• Rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would
operate at full capacity for only a short period, a motor
would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak
anticipated load and would operate at overload for a short
period of time
• Traditional mechanical means have been used (throttle
valves in piping systems) have been used when lower
output is required
• More efficient speed control mechanisms include multi-
speed motors and solid state electronics variable speed
drive
 Rewinding effect on Energy Efficiency
• The population of rewound motors is 50 %
• Loss of efficiency
• Deteriorate efficiency, winding and slot
design, winding material, insulation
performance and operating temparature
• Insulation between laminations can be
damaged, increasing eddy current loss
• A change in air gap may affect the power
factor and output torque
 Speed control of Motors
• DC motors are available in a wide range of
sizes, but their use is generally restricted to a
few low speed , low to medium power
applications
• AC motor are increasingly focus for variable
speed application
– Variable frequency drive
 Problem
• A 37.5 kW rated induction motor burns out in a process plant. The
financial manager of the plant wants to rewind the motor for Rs.
10000 to save money. The energy manager wants to buy a new
energy efficient motor for Rs. 50,000/- after selling burnt out motor
for Rs. 7000. He claims that he can save much more money in the
next five years than the cost difference of the above two options.
Other data is as under:
– Operating hours/year = 7900
– Rewound motor efficiency at 75 % loading= 88 %
– New energy efficient motor efficiency at 75 % loading =93 %
– Motor loading =75%
– Electricity cost = Rs. 5/kWh
• How much money does the energy manager actually save over 5
years and what is the simple pay back period ?
 Problem (continue…)
• The financial manager claims the financial risk is still too high
because operating hours may go down drastically from 7900
to 3000 hrs in the next 5 years. The energy manager still
insists that even if the motor’s annual operating hours
become 1/3 rd of the annual 3000 operating hour as
predicted by financial manager, the proposal will still recover
the cost difference within next 5 years. Do you agree with the
energy manager?
 Problem
A study of the electricity system revealed: The plant has a contract demand of 10
MVA. The maximum monthly demand recorded is 8.5 MVA and power factor (at
the time when the demand is maximum) is 0.90 (GSEB tariff : Energy charge: Rs
5.5/kWh
Demand charge: Rs 330/kVA/month of max. demand or 75 % of contract demand,
whichever is higher). The load factor is 0.5.
a) Determine the monthly bill and the average electricity price. How can the load
factor be improved? If a load factor of 0.8 is obtained what will be the
percentage reduction in the electricity bill?
b) Evaluate a proposal to put in additional capacitors to increase the power
factor to 0.97 (Determine the kVAr of capacitors and the investment required.
Is the proposal economically viable?)
Price of capacitors Rs. 400/kVAr