Bernoulli’s Equation

Reynolds Number
• The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces and is a convenient parameter for
predicting if a flow condition will be laminar or
turbulent. It can be interpreted that when the viscous
forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are
sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line,
then the flow is laminar. Even very low Re indicates
viscous creeping motion, where inertia effects are
negligible. When the inertial forces dominate over the
viscous forces (when the fluid is flowing faster and Re
is larger) then the flow is turbulent. It is a
dimensionless number comprised of the physical
characteristics of the flow. An increasing Reynolds
number indicates an increasing turbulence of flow.
• It is defined as:
• where: V is the flow velocity,
D is a characteristic linear dimension,
(travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic
diameter etc.)
ρ fluid density (kg/m3),
μ dynamic viscosity (Pa.s),
ν kinematic viscosity (m2/s); ν = μ / ρ
• For Laminar flow : Re < 2000
• For Turbulent Flow : Re > 4000
• For Transitional flow : 2000˂Re ˃4000
 Calibration of flow meters:
• The flow meters are generally selected for the variable based applications
including mass or volumetric flow, solid content, response time, and
conductivity of fluid.
• Calibration determines the accuracy of a measuring instrument. There are
mainly two different key elements that form the definition; determining the
deviation from standard and defining the exact correction factors.
• The flow meters require periodic calibration to ensure proper functioning.
This can easily be done by using another calibrated meter for the reference or
by following the predefined flow rate.
• The accuracy mainly depends upon the range of the instruments and the
temperature as well as the specific changes in the weight of the fluid.
• Flow meters should ideally be calibrated over the temperature as well as the
range for making appropriate corrections to the overall reading.
•
 Methods of Flow meter Calibration:

• Flow meters measuring liquid and gas flow are

tested or calibrated using somewhat different
methods. There are several main methods for
calibrating flow meters:
• Master Meter
• Piston Prover
• Gravimetric
Master Meter calibration Method:
• A master meter is a calibrated flow meter that is used as a
calibration standard. The master meter is placed in series with the
flow meter under test, and the results are compared at different
flow rates. A master meter must be compatible with the fluid being
tested. So, a magnetic flowmeter would not work as a calibration
standard for hydrocarbon liquids, but it can potentially work well
with water and industrial liquids. Positive-displacement meters are
often used as master meters for hydrocarbon liquids.

• For a master meter to serve as a calibration standard, its calibration

must be traceable back to some national or international standard.
This means there is an unbroken chain of measurements back to
the primary standard. For example, a master meter might be
calibrated with a flow meter that was calibrated at the national
standards laboratory.
Piston Prover Calibration Method:
• Piston provers are a primary standard for flow calibration. A piston
prover consists of a round cylinder with a known internal diameter.
The cylinder contains a sealed piston. The piston strokes through
known and measured lengths to produce volumetric flow. Flow
volume is determined by multiplying the cross sectional area of the
piston by the length travelled by the piston. Flow rate is derived by
dividing the volume by the time it took the piston to move through
the distance it travelled.
• The known volume of liquid as determined by the piston prover is
passed through the meter under test, and the results are compared.
Since the volume of liquid has been accurately measured, this
provides a very good indication of the accuracy of the meter under
test. This method works for water, industrial liquids, and petroleum-
based liquids. In some cases, it is necessary to take temperature
and pressure values into account when making the measurements.
 Gravimetric Calibration Method:
• Another highly reliable method of calibrating liquid flowmeters is to
weigh the liquid that passes through the meter under test in a
specified period of time, such as 1 minute. In order to obtain an
accurate reading of the weight, a calibrated weigh scale is generally
used. Since this is a timed measurement, the piping needs to be
filled with flowing liquid before the test begins. At this point, the
flow should be going into a discharge container. To start the test,
simultaneously switch the flow into the weighing container and
start timing the flow. Once the desired time is reached,
simultaneously divert the flow from the weighing container and into
the discharge chamber and stop timing the flow. You can derive
flowrate by converting the weighed volume to the desired units and
then dividing by the time. Now compare this flowrate to the
flowrate recorded on the flowmeter. This is a description of a
manual process, but automated versions of this process also exist,
and they are no doubt more reliable.
 Variable Head type flow meters:

• In the head-type flowmeter a restriction is

introduced into the pipe or flow line, so there occurs
a head loss or pressure drop at the restriction with
increase in the flow velocity. Measurement of this
pressure drop can be shown to be an indication of
the flow rate. Then the volume flow rate is
proportional to the square root of pressure
difference across the obstruction. To measure
pressure difference, diaphragm based differential
pressure transducer or u tube manometers are used.
 Working of head type flowmeter: vena contracta

• Due to the introduction into the pipe line the

minimum area of the flow channel occurs not
at the restriction but at some point slightly
downstream, known as the vena contracta.
This is in turn depends on the flow rate. While
the tapping positions are fixed, the position of
maximum velocity changes with changing flow
rate.
• For actual flow conditions with frictional
losses present, so the empirical relation is
defined from Bernoulli’s equation is given by,
q=KA2(2gh)1/2
K=(qactual/qideal)/(1-(d/D)4)1/2
= discharge coeff/(1-(A2/A1)2)1/2
(p1-p2)/ρ=h=differential head expressed in units
of length
 Orifice Flow meters
• An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type
flow measuring device. An orifice plate is inserted in
the pipeline and the differential pressure across it is
measured.
• The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an
increase in flow velocity and a corresponding decrease
in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective
decrease in cross section beyond the orifice plate, with
a maximum velocity and minimum pressure at the
vena-contracta.
• The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin
metal sheet, having a hole in it.
 Different types:

Ref: D.Patranabish, Principles of Industrial Instrumentation

• There are three types of orifice plates namely
• 1. Concentric
• 2. Eccentric and
• 3. Segmental type.

• Fig 2.3: Orifice Plate

 Material used:
• The material chosen for orifice plate is of any
rigid material of non-rusting and non-
corrodible. It is vital that the material should
not corrode in the fluid being metered. The
common materials used are Stainless steel,
Monel, Phosphor bronze, Glass, Ceramics,
Plastics, Brass, Copper, Aluminium and
Tantalum.
 Working:
• The area of the fluid stream continues to contract after the stream has
left the orifice and it has a minimum diameter at the vena-contracta. The
pressure of the fluid therefore continues to fall after leaving the orifice.
There is a slight fall in pressure in the approach section and the static
pressure is at a minimum about one pipe diameter before the orifice
plate. The pressure of the fluid then rises near the face of the orifice.
There is then a sudden fall of pressure as the fluid passes through the
orifice, but the minimum pressure is not attained until the vena-contracta
is reached.
• Beyond the vena-contracta, there is a rapid recovery in the static
pressure. Owing to friction and dissipation of energy in turbulence, the
maximum downstream pressure is always lesser than the upstream
pressure. The pressure loss so caused depends upon the differential
pressure and increases as the orifice ratio decreases for a given rate of
flow.
 Installation
• The differential pressure obtained with an orifice plate will
also depend upon the position of the pressure taps. The
points to be observed while locating the taps are:
• (a) they are in the same position relative to the plane of the
orifice for all pipe sizes.
• (b) the tap is located at a position for which the slope of the
pressure profile is at least, so that slight errors in tap
position will have less effort on the value of the observed
pressure.
• (c) the tap location in the installation is identical with that
used in evaluation of the coefficients on which the
calculation is based.
Orifice Plate and pressure gauge in the
flow line
 Advantages of Orifice meter:
• The Orifice meter is very cheap as compared
to other types of flow meters.
• Less space is required to Install and hence
ideal for space constrained applications
• Operational response can be designed with
perfection.
• Installation direction possibilities: Vertical /
Horizontal / Inclined.
 Limitations of Orifice meter:
• Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas or in unclear liquids
• The minimum pressure that can be achieved for reading the
flow is sometimes difficult to achieve due to limitations in the
vena-contracta length for an Orifice Plate.
• Unlike Venturi meter, downstream pressure cannot be
recovered in Orifice Meters. Overall head loss is around 40% to
90% of the differential pressure.
• Flow straighteners are required at the inlet and the outlet to
attain streamline flow thereby increasing the cost and space
for installation.
• Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with time thereby entails
an error.
• Discharge Co-efficient obtained from orifice meter is low.
Venturi Flow meters
 construction
• differential pressure producers, based on Bernoulli’s Theorem.
• there is a continuous contact between the fluid flow and the
surface of the restriction.
• It consists of a cylindrical inlet section equal to the pipe
diameter.
• A converging conical section in which the cross sectional area
decreases causing the velocity to increase with a
corresponding increase in the velocity head and a decrease in
the pressure head.
• A cylindrical throat section, where the velocity is constant so
that the decreased pressure head can be measured
• diverging recovery cone where the velocity decreases and
almost all of the original pressure head is recovered.
• The unrecovered pressure head is commonly called as head
loss.
 Materials used:

• The classic venturi is always manufactured

with a cast iron body and a bronze or stainless
steel throat section.
 Pressure taps and dimensions:

• At the midpoint of the throat, 6 to 8 pressure taps

connect the throat to an annular chamber so the
throat pressure is averaged. The cross sectional area of
the chamber is 1.5 times the cross sectional area of
the taps. Since there is no movement of fluid in the
annular chamber, the pressure sensed is strictly static
pressure.
 Contd.
• The pressure taps are located one-quarter to
one-half pipe diameter upstream of the inlet
cone and at the middle of the throat section. A
venturi tube may be installed in any position
to suit the requirements of the application and
piping.
 Advantages of Venturimeter:
1. It has low head loss which is about 10% of
differential pressure head.
2. It can be used to measure higher flow rates in
pipes having few meters of diameters. This is due
to high coefficient of discharge owing to lower
loss.
3. It can be used in any position e.g. horizontal,
vertical or inclined.
4. Higher sensitivities can be achieved due to
smaller size throat leads which leads to higher
pressure differential.
 Disadvantages of Venturimeter:
• 1. It can not be used in limited space applications
due to larger size.

2. Due to large size, the cost is higher.

3. Due to large size, the cost of installation is higher.

4. Very small diameter of throat results into

cavitation of fluid in the throat.
 Flow Nozzle
• often used in flow measurement due to their
reliable performance and tolerance to
extremes in process and environmental
conditions.
• It is a variation of Venturi in which the exit
section is omitted and the approach section is
bell-shaped with a cylindrical throat.
Flow Nozzle
 Flow Nozzle
• They offer advantages over orifice plates as
they has less pressure loss.
• Accuracy can be sustained indefinitely since
there are no sharp edges to wear.
• Flow nozzles are used in various industries,
particularly for steam flow in the power sector.
• flow nozzle designs and installation
requirements are very convenient due to small
size compared to venturi , known and
recognized by national and international
standards organizations
• The Flow nozzle is a smooth, convergent
section that discharges the flow parallel to the
axis of the downstream pipe. The downstream
end of a nozzle approximates a short tube and
has the diameter of the venacontracta of an
orifice of equal capacity. Thus the its flow
coefficient is larger.
 Materials used:
• Flow nozzles are usually made of gun metals,
stainless steel, bronze or monel metal. They are
frequently chromium plated. The pressure tappings
may take the form of annular rings with slots
opening into the main at each side of the flange of
the nozzle or of single holes drilled through the
flange of the main close to the nozzle flange. It is
not suitable for metering viscous liquids. It may be
installed in an existing main without great difficulty.
 Advantages of Flow Nozzle:

• 1. Permanent pressure loss lower than that for

an orifice plate.
• 2. It is suitable for fluids containing solids that
settle.
• 3. It is widely accepted for high pressure and
temperature steam flow.
 Disadvantages of Flow Nozzle:

• 1. Cost is higher than orifice plate.

• 2. It is limited to moderate pipe sizes.
• 3. It requires more maintenance. (It is
necessary to remove a section of pipe to
inspect or install it).
 Variable Area Flowmeters –
Glass and metal tube Rotameters

• Head type flow meter: restriction area

constant generating pressure differential
• Area flowmeter:
differential head constant by variable area
change in area be a measure of fluid flow rate
actually variable area is not measured, only
principle is used to measure the flowrate
 Rotameter: working
• Rotameters are the most widely used type of
variable-area (VA) flow meter.
• The fluid enters the vertical tapered
rotameter tube at the bottom and flows out
from the top.
• A weighted bob or float is placed in the tube is
maintained at equilibrium by the joint action
of the upward and downward forces on it.
Upward drag
force due to the
flowing fluid=
the downward
forces i.e ., wt of
the bob +
buoyancy forces.
 construction
• The float may be of a variety of shapes. The
materials of construction include stainless steel,
glass, metal, and plastic. The tapered tube's
gradually increasing diameter provides a
related increase in the annular area around the
float, and is designed in accordance with the
basic equation for volumetric flow rate.
• The tapered tube is generally made of glass so
that the float may be viewed from the outside
• Flowrate= meter constant (K) * height of the
float(h)
 ?

• How you will chose the float density?

 • ρ2 = 2ρ1

Volume flow rate: stainless steel

Weight rate of flow: a blend of plastic
and metal --plasmet
 Glass Tube Rotameters:

• The tapered metering tube is made up of

borosilicate glass. Because of the glass tube,
the float is normally visible from the outside.
 Metal Tube Rotameters:
• These devices are designed for applications where
the temperature or pressure exceeds the limits of
glass tubes. Flow rate is indicated by a pointer on an
indicating scale by means of a magnet inside the
float, magnetically linked to the pointer. Designed
for indication only, metal tube meters require no
external source of electric power. They may also be
specified in applications requiring remote
transmission of the measured flow rate, a feature
not generally available with glass tube meters.
• Available in a variety of tube and float
combinations, metal tube meters are generally
made of corrosion-resistant type 316 stainless
steel. They are well suited to measuring steam
flow where conditions or regulations prevent
the use of glass, and useful as well where the
nature of the fluid would preclude reading a
float position.
 Advantages:
• Low and constant pressure loss
• Usability for corrosive fluid
• Good accuracy at low and medium flow rate
• Possibility of compensation for fluid density
variation and viscosity
• Ruggedness due to use of plastic and metal
metering tube.
Mass flow meters
• Mass flow meter measures mass flow rate of a fluid traveling
through a tube.
• The mass flow rate is the mass of the fluid traveling past a
fixed point per unit time, (e.g., kilograms per second)
flowing through the device.
• Volumetric flow rate is the mass flow rate divided by the
fluid density. If the density is constant, then the relationship
is simple. If the fluid has varying density, then the
relationship is not simple. The density of the fluid may
change with temperature, pressure, or composition, for
example. The fluid may also be a combination of phases such
as a fluid with entrained bubbles.
 Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters
• Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meter is an angular momentum
type mass flow meter.
• The principle of angular momentum can be described by
referring to Newton’s second law of the angular motion and
the definition of angular momentum, using the following
notation:
• H = angular momentum
• I = moment of inertia
• ω = angular velocity
• α = angular acceleration
• T = torque
• r = radius of gyration
• m = mass
• t = time
• Newton’s second law of angular motion states that
• T = Iα ………………………………………….i
• and defines that H = Iω ………………………..ii
• But, Since by definition I = mr2 ………………iii
• Now equation (i) becomes T = mr2α ………….iv
• and equation (ii) becomes H = mr2ω ………….v
• Since α = ω/t ………………………………….vi
• equation (iv) becomes T = m/t r2ω …………..vii
• Solving for mass flow rate, m/t, we get
• m/t = T/r2ω …………………………………. vii
• Also, dividing both sides of equation (v) by t
• H/t = m/t r2ω ………………………………..viii
• Since torque is in terms of force, the right-
hand side of equation (vii) must be multiplied
by g (9.8 m/sec2) to obtain a dimensionally
correct equation. Therefore, since r2 is a
constant for any given system, the flow of fluid
can be determined if an angular momentum is
introduced into the fluid stream and
measurements are made of the torque
produced by this angular momentum and of
the fluid’s angular velocity.
• The impeller, turbine-type mass flow meter uses two
rotating elements in the fluid stream, an impeller and
a turbine. Both elements contain channels through
which the fluid flows. The impeller is driven at a
constant speed by a synchronous motor through a
magnetic coupling and imparts an angular velocity to
the fluid as it flows through the meter. The turbine
located downstream of the impeller removes all
angular momentum from the fluid and thus receives a
torque proportional to the angular momentum. This
turbine is restrained by a spring which deflects
through an angle which is proportional to the torque
exerted upon it by the fluid, thus giving a measure of
mass flow.
 Electromagnetic Flow Meters
• Electromagnetic flow meter follows Faraday’s
Law of Electromagnetic Induction for
measurement of flow.

• State Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic

induction.
• Under Faraday's law of induction, moving
conductive liquids inside of a magnetic field
generates an electromotive force (voltage) in
which the pipe inner diameter (D), magnetic
field strength(B), and average flow velocity (V)
are all proportional. In other words, the flow
velocity of liquid moving in a magnetic field is
converted into electricity. (E is proportional to
V × B × D)
As the flow changes, the electromotive force (voltage) captured by the electrodes changes as
follows:

Output of Electromagnetic Flow meters

 Advantages:
• Electromagnetic flow meters has a number of
advantages when it comes to liquid flow
measurement. The sensors are generally
inserted in line into the pipes’ diameter, and
are therefore designed such that they do not
disturb or restrict the flow of the medium
under measurement. As the sensors are not
directly immersed in the liquid and there are
no moving parts, thus, there are no wear and
tear concerns.
• The electromagnetic method measures the
volume flow, which means the measurement
is insensitive to changes in effects such as fluid
density, temperature, pressure, and viscosity.
Once the electromagnetic flow meter is
calibrated with water, it can be used to
measure the other types of conductive fluid
with no additional correction. This is a
significant advantage that other types of flow
meters don’t have.
• Electromagnetic technology is particularly suitable
for measuring within a solid-liquid two-phase
medium, such as a liquid with suspended dirt, solid
particles, fibers, or viscosity within a heavily
conductive medium such as slurry. It can be used to
measure the sewage, mud, ore pulp, paper pulp,
chemical fiber slurry, and other media. This makes it
particularly suitable, for example, to the food and
pharmaceutical industry, where it can measure the
flow of corn syrup, fruit juice, wine, medicine and
blood plasma, and many other special media.