Semester 2, 2008-2009

petrologi
2 SKS teori
1 SKS praktikum
by:
hill. gendoet hartono

Senin, jam 09.50 – 10.40

jam 10.45 – 11.35
Clastic Rocks - Hand Specimens
 Breccias: angular particles
 Conglomerates: rounded particles
 Sandstones
 Quartz sandstone: dominated by quartz
grains
 Arkose sandstone: composed of qtz & fsp
grains
 Graywacke: dominated by lithic (rock)
fragments
 Shales: mud and silt particles
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Detrital/Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks
 conglomerates & breccias
 sandstones
 mudstones
 Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks
 limestones
 dolostones
 Other Sedimentary Rocks
 evaporites
 phosphates
 organic-rich sedimentary rocks
 cherts
 volcaniclastic rocks
Detrital Sediments & Sedimentary
Rocks

gravel
&
conglomerate

sand
&
sandstone

clay, silt
&
mudstone
Types of sedimentary rocks

Chemical rocks – sediment from

ions that were once in solution

Detrital rocks –sediment

transported as solid particles
 Detrital sedimentary rocks
 Constituents of detrital rocks can
include
 Clay minerals
 Quartz
 Feldspars
 Micas

 Particle size is used to distinguish

among the various types of detrital
rocks
 Detrital sedimentary rocks
Mudrocks: grains less than .06 mm
 1. Mud: small particles easily kept in
suspension
 Settles only in quiet water
 Rock types include Shale: mud-sized particles
<.004 mm deposited in thin bedding layers
called laminae
The most common sedimentary rock
2. Larger mudrock grains called silts
silt-sized particles .004-.06 mm
Gritty grains can be felt
Mudrock (Shale) containing plant
fossils
lamellae

Fossil Leaves Wilkes Barre, PA

Detrital sedimentary rocks

Sandstones
 Made of sand-sized particles .064 – 2
mm … Sand is a size!
 Forms in a variety of environments
 Sorting, angularity and composition
of grains can be used to interpret the
rock’s history
 Quartz is the predominant mineral
(due to its durable nature)
Sandstone (note large number of quartz grains)
 Classifying Sandstones
Photomicrograph of quartz rich sandstone (Arenite)
Grains subangular to subrounded, sandstone is poorly sorted
Plagioclase grain

Making thin sections

 Types of Sandstone
 Quartz Arenite >90% quartz grains
 Beach and dune deposits
 Arkoses >25% feldspar, angular, poor sort.
 Transform boundaries; exposed granites
 Any felsic rock eroded, not transported far
 Graywackes Quartz, feldspar, volcanics
 Port sorted, angular
 Erosion of Island Arcs
 Rift Valley Sediments
Detrital sedimentary rocks

 Conglomerate and breccia

 Both composed of particles > 2mm in
diameter
 Conglomerate consists largely of
rounded clasts
 Breccia is composed of large angular
particles
Conglomerate
Breccia (shattered rock accumulates at the base of a cliff)

Note sharp angular clasts

 Energy
 Coarse sediments are deposited in high
energy (fast water) environments such as
under breaking waves at the beach, or in
the beds of fast streams.

 Fine sediments are deposited in low

energy environments, e.g. the slow water
of deep lagoons, the abyssal plain, etc.
 Outcrop of conglomerate
with cobble-sized clasts
interbedded with sandstone

Conglomerates are fast-

water sediments
“High Energy”
K.E. = 1/2mv2
In fast water, smaller sizes
swept away
 Chemical sedimentary rocks
 Precipitated material once in solution
 Precipitation of material occurs two
ways:
Inorganic processes: the minerals
precipitate out of water
Organic processes: animals and plants
precipitate the minerals to use as shells
or skeletons A foraminiferan,
a type of microfossil
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/collections/micro.html
 Common chemical sedimentary rocks
Limestone
Most abundant chemical rock
Made of the mineral calcite CaCO3
Marine biochemical limestones form
as coral reefs, coquina (broken
shells), and chalk (microscopic
organisms)
Inorganic limestones include
travertine (caves) and oolitic
limestone (Bahamas)
Coquina
Fossiliferous limestone
Note shells and lime matrix
Chalk Outcrops in SE USA

Chalk
Hand Specimen
Inorganic Chemical Sediments
Ooids under microscope

Oolitic Limestone - Bahama Shoals

Oolitic Limestone - Hand Specimen

 Other chemical sedimentary rocks
 Chert
 Made of microcrystalline quartz
 Usually deposited as siliceous ooze in deep
oceans (can be diatomaceous)

Diatomaceous chert
chert
 Other chemical sedimentary rocks
 Dolostone (made of mineral Dolomite)
 Like Calcite, but some Ca is replaced by Mg

The Dolomites, sediments thrust up when the Alps formed

 Evaporation
How to make Dolomite
6_19

Limestone

Seawater enriched
in Mg2

Mg2 -rich seawater circulates

Dolostone
through porous limestone
Mg2 replaces some of the
Ca2 in limestone
http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/instruct/ashworth/coursework/g410/evaporites/saltbeds.jpg

 Common chemical sedimentary

rocks
Evaporites
Evaporation triggers
deposition of chemical
precipitates
Examples include rock salt
and gypsum
 Chemical sedimentary rocks
 Common chemical sedimentary rocks
 Coal
 Different from other rocks because it
is composed of organic material
 Stages in coal formation (in order)
 1. Plant material
 2. Peat
 3. Lignite
 4. Bituminous
Stages in coal formation
 Sedimentary Environment

 Is the geographic setting where

sediment accumulates

 Determines nature of sediment that

accumulates (grain size, shape, etc.)
 Character of detrital sediments depends on time, distance,
and energy. For 6_5
example, in streams:

Particles are large and Particles are mid-sized Particles are small and
irregular, and consist of and of intermediate nearly spherical, and
a variety of lithologies, sphericity, and include consist mainly of the
including the least resistant and nonresistant most resistant lithologies,
resistant. lithologies. such as quartz.
HIGHLANDS LOWLANDS NEAR-COASTAL
Clastic wedges
 Sediment Maturity
Sediment Maturity is
indicated by decreasing Poorly sorted Well sorted
clay content, increasing
degree of size sorting,
and increasing rounding
of grains within the
deposit

Sorting refers to the range

of particle sizes in the
sediment

Well-sorted - uniform grain

size
Poorly-sorted - mixture of
grain sizes
immature mature
Texas A&M University
OCNG 251 Oceanography
We can recognize past floods Floods change the local
conditions
6_6
Fine-grained sediment
on floodplain
Older sediment
Bounders on
1 Pre-flood bottom, sands
and muds
suspended
Flood water

Erosion of uppermost
fine-grained sediment

2 Flood stage

Flood: One source of

Graded Bedding
Fining-upward
flood deposit
Bedding plane is an
erosional surface
3 Post-flood
 Types of sedimentary environments
 Continental
 Streams
 cross beds from ripples, fine mud w/ cracks
on floodplain
 Lakes – Fine parallel lamellae - Varves
 Wind (dunes) well sorted, frosted grains
 Glacial Ice: Poorly sorted, unstratified
 Marine
 Shallow (< 200 meters deep) carbonate-rich
sands, muds
 Deep (seaward of continental shelves)
microfossils, volcanic ash, turbidites
 Types of sedimentary environments
Transitional (shoreline)
 Tidal flat Sands w/ symmetrical ripples
 Lenses of tidal creek muds
 Lagoons – including Bays behind Barrier
Islands.
 Organic rich black muds and sands
 Deltas
 Complex, e.g. Sandstones w/ large
foresets at seaward face
 Turbidite: underwater landslide
A picture glossary of sedimentary environments = graded bedding
 Sedimentary Facies
Different sediments accumulate
next to each other at same time
Each unit (called a facies) possesses
a distinctive characteristics
reflecting the conditions in a
particular environment
The merging of adjacent facies
tends to be a gradual transition
Some facies in an oversimplified drawing

Abyssal Ooze Stillwater muds Nearshore sands

 Sedimentary structures
 Tell us something about past
environments
 Types of sedimentary structures
Strata, or beds (most
characteristic of sedimentary
rocks)
-bedding planes that separate
strata caused by variation in
deposition
Strata- Bedding Planes
Fine Scale Bedding- Lamellae
Recognizable Sedimentary Structures
 Types of sedimentary structures 1

Graded beds: waning flow (flood, turbidite)

 Sediments become coarser upward

Determines “Right side up”

 Graded Beds – grains fine upward
Note: Beds were tilted from horizontal after deposition
 Recognizable Sedimentary Structures
 Ripples

Irregularities in bottom sediment lead to

ripples
Asymmetric types indicate flow
direction.
Symmetric types formed in tidal areas
 Cross Beds – ripples in cross section

 In cross section these look like lines

at an angle to the horizontal – “cross
beds”

 Form determined by velocity and size

of particles.
Slabs of eroding sandstone with ripple marks
 Cross bedding in Sand Dune deposits
Navaho Sandstone Sand Dune? Look for Frosted Grains

Shoreline of
an interior
seaway

Sandstone deposited
in ancient sand dunes
Frosted Grains
Recognizable Sedimentary Structures

 Types of sedimentary structures 3

 Non-marine

Mud Cracks – floodplains, playas

Also good for right side up

Mud Cracks: clay layer shrinks during drying, curls
upward; cracks fill next flood
Mudcracks indicate drying events.
Geologists can determine if rocks overturned.
 Sedimentary Environments
 Sediments are formed in many different
environments

 Each have characteristic appearance

today, features that allow them to be
recognized in the geologic record
 Fresh Water Facies
• Streams (includes big Rivers), with
floodplains and levees, called fluviatile. The
Point Bar Sequence is typical for meandering
streams. Cutoffs generate Oxbow deposits.

High gradient streams with high sediment

load are Braided.

• Lake deposits called lacustrine, generally

still waters, often varved deposits if winters cold
http://hays.outcrop.org/gallery/rivers/arid_meander?full=1
 Point-bar Sequence:
Deposits Associated with
Meandering
Meandering Streams
Stream

OxBow

Floodplain
http://hays.outcrop.org/gallery/rivers/arid_meander?full=1
Point Bar Sequence
Fines of Floodplain

Crossbeds of Bar

Gravel of bed

Erosion
Terms for Marine (i.e. Ocean) Environments
and some characteristic
6_27 sediment facies

Continental
Continental slope
shelf

Abyssal
Plain

Submarine
volcanoes
Facies changes due to rising sea level - water getting deeper everywhere

River
Direction
6_29 of migration
of shoreline, and landward
shift of sedimentary facies

Shoreline at Time B
time B
Sea level
Time A rising
Shoreline at
time A

Deep
Shallow marine
marine Deposited
Deep
marine at time A
Beach
Shallow
Deposited
marine
Shallow at time B
River REMEMBER: the facies
Beach marine
follow the shoreline
Comparison of sediments deposited
 Fossils: Evidence of past life
 By definition, fossils are the traces or
remains of prehistoric life now preserved in
rock
 Fossils are generally found in sediment or
sedimentary rock (very rarely in
metamorphic or igneous rocks)
 Fossils: Evidence of past life
 Geologically fossils are important for
several reasons
 Aid in interpretation of the geologic past
 Serve as important time and environment
indicators
 Allow for correlation of rocks from different
places
3 Billion Year Old Algal Mounds (Stromatolites) Australia

CO2 in
O2 out
 Natural casts of
shelled invertebrates in limestone
Dinosaur footprint in mudstone
Dilophosaurus Jurassic Park Dennis Neary and Peter Dodson