Force

Force

• A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from

the object's interaction with another object. Whenever
there is an interaction between two objects, there is a
force upon each of the objects. When the interaction
ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force.
Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
 System of Forces
• If all the forces in a system lie in a single plane, it is called a
coplanar force system.
• If the line of action of all the forces in a system passes through a
single point it is called a concurrent force system.
• In a system of parallel forces, all the forces are parallel to each
other.
• If the line of action of all forces lies along a single line, then it is
called a collinear force system.
 System of Various Forces
• Collinear forces
Line of action of all the forces acts along the same line.
Example: Forces on a rope in a tug of war.
• Coplanar parallel forces
All forces are parallel to each other and lie in a single plane.
Example: The system of forces acting on a beam subjected to
vertical loads.
 System of Various Forces
• Coplanar like parallel forces
All forces are parallel to each other, lie in a single plane and are
acting in the same direction.
Example: The weight of a stationary train on a rail when the track is
straight.
• Coplanar Concurrent forces
Line of action of all forces pass through a single point and forces
lie in the same plane.
Example: Forces on a rod resting against a wall.
 System of Various Forces
• Coplanar Non-concurrent forces
All forces do not meet at a point but lie in a single plane.
Example: Forces on a ladder resting against a wall when a person
stands on a rung which is not at its centre of gravity.
• Non-coplanar parallel forces
All the forces are parallel to each other, but not in the same plane.
Example: The weight of benches in a classroom.
 System of Various Forces
• Non-coplanar concurrent forces
All the forces are parallel to each other, but not in the same plane,
but their lines of action pass through a single point.
Example: A tripod is carrying a camera.
• Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces
All forces do not lie in the same plane, but their lines of action pass
through a single point.
Example: Forces are acting on a moving bus.
 Static Load and Dynamic Load

• Dynamic, working, or lifting load is the force that will be

applied to the linear actuator while it is in motion.

• Static load, also called the holding load, is the force that
will be applied to the linear actuator when it is not in
motion.
 Loads Acting on Aircraft
The flight envelope of an aeroplane can be divided into two regimes.
• Rectilinear flight in a straight line, the aircraft does not accelerate
normal to the direction of flight.
• Curvilinear flight, which, as the name suggests, involves flight in a
curved path with acceleration normal to tangential flight path.
Curvilinear flight is often known as manoeuvring and is of greater
importance for structural design since the aerodynamic and
inertial loads are much higher than in rectilinear flight.
 Loads Acting on Aircraft
• Aircraft structures must be designed to withstand the static and
dynamic loads experienced by an aircraft throughout its lifespan.
Aircraft loads are those forces and moments, or loadings, applied
to the airplane structural components (e.g., the wing, horizontal
tail, and the fuselage) to establish the required strength level of
the complete airplane.
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
• Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to
resist stress. In designing an aircraft, every square inch of wing
and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even each metal fitting must be
considered in relation to the physical characteristics of the
material of which it is made. Every part of the aircraft must be
planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it.
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
There are five major stresses:
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending
Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
• Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull
something apart. The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but air
resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension, which
stretches the aircraft. The tensile strength of a material is
measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and is calculated by
dividing the load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart by
its cross-sectional area (in square inches).
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
• Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force. The
compressive strength of a material is also measured in psi.
Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft
parts.
• Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the
aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one side, but
other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus, torsion is
created. The torsion strength of a material is its resistance to
twisting or torque.
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
• Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer
of a material to slide over an adjacent layer. Two riveted plates in
tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Usually, the shearing
strength of a material is either equal to or less than its tensile or
compressive strength. Aircraft parts, especially screws, bolts, and
rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.
 Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft
• Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. The rod
in has been shortened (compressed) on the inside of the bend and
stretched on the outside of the bend.
• A single member of the structure may be subjected to a combination
of stresses. In most cases, the structural members are designed to carry
end loads rather than side loads. They are designed to be subjected to
tension or compression rather than bending.