IGCSE BIOLOGY

SECTION 3 LESSON 4
 Content

Section 3
a) Reproduction
Reproduction - Flowering plants
and - Humans
Inheritance
b) Inheritance
 Content
b) Inheritance
Lesson 4 3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of
chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
3.22 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation,
using a genetic diagram

b) Inheritance
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two
cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes
3.24 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and
asexual reproduction
3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells,
each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in
the formation of genetically different haploid gametes
3.26 understand that random fertilisation produces genetic variation
of offspring
3.27 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is
46 and the haploid number is 23
3.28 understand that variation within a species can be genetic,
environmental, or a combination of both
3.29 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic
material that can be inherited
3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection
3.31 understand that many mutations are harmful but some are
neutral and a few are beneficial
3.32 understand that resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial
populations, and appreciate how such an increase can lead to
infections being difficult to control
3.33 understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by
exposure to ionising radiation (for example gamma rays, X-rays and
ultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (for example
chemicals in tobacco).
 Chromosomes
In human body cells there are 46 chromosomes,
arranged into 23 pairs.
 Chromosomes
In human body cells there are 46 chromosomes,
arranged into 23 pairs.

This picture is
known as the
human karyotype.
 Chromosomes
In human body cells there are 46 chromosomes,
arranged into 23 pairs.

This picture is
known as the
human karyotype.

The human diploid

number is 46.
 Chromosomes
In human body cells there are 46 chromosomes,
arranged into 23 pairs.

This picture is
known as the
human karyotype.

The human diploid

number is 46.

The human haploid

number is 23.
 Chromosomes
In human gametes (sex cells) there are 23
chromosomes, one from each pair.
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship between
the size of an organism and the chromosome
number.
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship between
the size of an organism and the chromosome
number.
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship between
the size of an organism and the chromosome
number.
Organism Diploid number of
chromosomes
Pigeon 80
Dog 78
Cat 38
Bean 22
Pea 14
Meerkat 36
Pig 38
Dolphin 44
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of an
individual (male or female)

The male has an X sex

chromosome and a Y
sex chromosome (shown
here)
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of an
individual (male or female)

The female has two X

sex chromosomes
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of an
individual (male or female)

Male = XY

Female = XX
 Inheritance of sex
Sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes
=XX =XY
 Inheritance of sex
Sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes
=XX =XY

X X X Y
In gamete (sex cell)
formation, the sex
chromosomes separate
Inheritance of sex

X Y
sperm

egg

X
X
Inheritance of sex

X Y
sperm

egg

X XX XY
X XX XY
 Inheritance of sex

X Y
sperm

egg

BABY
GIRL X XX XY
X XX XY
BABY
BOY
 Inheritance of sex

X Y
sperm

egg

X XX XY
FERTILISATION is RANDOM
BABY -There is an equal chance that
GIRL an X-sperm or a Y-sperm will
fertilise the egg.
Therefore, there is an equal

X XX XY
chance of having either a baby
BABY girl or a baby boy.
BOY
 Inheritance of sex

X Y
sperm

egg

X XX XY
BABY SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
GIRL means loads of variation,
because the genetic material
from both parents is mixed
together when the sperm

X XX XY
BABY fertilises the egg
BOY
 “understand that “understand that
division of a diploid division of a cell by
cell by mitosis meiosis produces four
produces two cells cells, each with half
which contain identical the number of
sets of chromosomes” chromosomes”
 “understand that “understand that
division of a diploid division of a cell by
cell by mitosis meiosis produces four
produces two cells cells, each with half
which contain identical the number of
sets of chromosomes” chromosomes”

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
The method by The method by
which all body which sex cells
cells divide, to are produced,
maintain the resulting in the
diploid number haploid number
(46) (23)
 “understand that “understand that
division of a diploid division of a cell by
cell by mitosis WARNING! meiosis
Mitosis and four
produces
produces two cellsMeiosis are both
cells, difficult
each with half
concepts to grasp,
which contain identical theso make
number of
sets of chromosomes” chromosomes”
sure you take this section
slowly and go over it again and
again until you’ve grasped all
the necessary facts.
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
The method by The method by
which all body which sex cells
cells divide, to are produced,
maintain the resulting in the
diploid number haploid number
(46) (23)
 Mitosis
This occurs for growth and repair
(and also in asexual reproduction)
and before each cell division a copy
of each chromosome is made so that
each body cell has exactly the same
genetic information. The
chromosome number is maintained.

DIPLOID  DIPLOID
 Mitosis

Parental cell with two

pairs of chromosomes
 Mitosis
Each chromosome
replicates itself

Parental cell with two

pairs of chromosomes
 Mitosis
Each chromosome
replicates itself

Parental cell with two

pairs of chromosomes

The ‘copies’ are

pulled apart. Cell
now divides for the
only time.
 Mitosis
Each chromosome
replicates itself

Parental cell with two

pairs of chromosomes

Each ‘daughter’ cell

has the same The ‘copies’ are
number of pulled apart. Cell
chromosomes as now divides for the
the parental cell only time.
and contains the
same genes as the
parental cell
Meiosis
Meiosis
Diploid number

Haploid number
Meiosis
Diploid number

Meiosis occurs in the

testes and ovaries to
produce the gametes
(eggs and sperm) for
sexual reproduction.

Haploid number
Meiosis
Parental cell with two pairs
of chromosomes
Meiosis
Parental cell with two pairs
of chromosomes

Each chromosome replicates

itself.
Meiosis
Parental cell with two pairs
of chromosomes

Each chromosome replicates

itself.

Chromosomes part company and move

to opposite sides with their copies.
Cell divides for the first time.
Meiosis
Parental cell with two pairs
of chromosomes

Each chromosome replicates

itself.

Chromosomes part company and move

to opposite sides with their copies.
Cell divides for the first time.

Copies now separate and the

second cell division takes place
Meiosis
Parental cell with two pairs
of chromosomes

Each chromosome replicates

itself.

Chromosomes part company and move

to opposite sides with their copies.
Cell divides for the first time.

Copies now separate and the

second cell division takes place

Four gametes now formed, each

with half the chromosome
number of the original parental
cell.
Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
 Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by meiosis,
which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
 Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by meiosis,
which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
2. Gametes fuse randomly, with one of
each pair of alleles coming from each
parent.
 Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by meiosis,
which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
2. Gametes fuse randomly, with one of
each pair of alleles coming from each
parent.
3. The alleles in a pair may be different
and so produce different
characteristics.
 understand that
variation within a
species can be
genetic,
environmental, or a
combination of both
Variation
Two possible
causes
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic

As a result of the
different genes
inherited
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic

As a result of the
different genes
inherited
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic Environment

As a result of the
different genes
inherited
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic Environment

As a result of the As a result of the

different genes conditions in which
inherited they develop
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic Environment

As a result of the As a result of the

different genes conditions in which
inherited they develop
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic Environment

As a result of the As a result of the

different genes conditions in which
inherited they develop

Usually, variation is
due to a combination
of genetic and
environmental causes
 “understand that “understand that the incidence
of mutations can be increased
mutation is a rare, by exposure to ionising
random change in radiation (for example gamma
rays, X-rays and ultraviolet
genetic material that rays) and some chemical
can be inherited” mutagens (for example
chemicals in tobacco)”
 Genetic mutations
Every time a cell divides, all
the DNA in the nucleus must
be copied exactly.
 Genetic mutations
Every time a cell divides, all
the DNA in the nucleus must
be copied exactly.

Occasionally a mistake may

occur, and bases may be put
in the wrong order.
 Genetic mutations
Every time a cell divides, all
the DNA in the nucleus must
be copied exactly.

Occasionally a mistake may

occur, and bases may be put
in the wrong order.

As a result, there will be a

different sequence of amino
acids, and therefore a
different protein will be
made.
 Genetic mutations
Every time a cell divides, all
the DNA in the nucleus must
be copied exactly.

Occasionally a mistake may

occur, and bases may be put
in the wrong order.

As a result, there will be a

different sequence of amino
acids, and therefore a This change in the order
different protein will be of the bases is called a
made. MUTATION
 Genetic mutations
Causes
Mutations occur naturally
but ……
• there is an increased risk
if
• individuals are exposed to
mutagenic agents
• such as ionising radiation
(UV, X-rays)
• radioactive substances and
certain chemicals (eg. in
cigarette smoke)
• the greater the dose, the
greater the risk.
Effects
Most mutations are harmful
and in …
• Reproductive cells can
cause death or abnormality
• in body cells they may
cause cancer
• some mutations are neutral
and some may increase the
survival chances of an
organism
• and its offspring who
inherit the gene
Types of gene mutations
 Types of gene mutations
Duplication – the nucleotide (an individual base unit) is
inserted twice instead of once

Eg:

Normal AAT CCG GCA TTC TAT

Duplicated AAA TCC GGC ATT CTA

duplication here
 Types of gene mutations
Deletion – the nucleotide is completely missed out

Eg:

Normal AAT CCG GCA TTC TAT

Deletion AAC CGC ATT CTA TTC

deletion here
 Types of gene mutations
Substitution – a different nucleotide is inserted

Eg:

Normal AAT CCG GCA TTC TAT

Substitution AAG CCG GCA TTC TAT

substitution here
 Types of gene mutations
Inversion – the sequence of bases is reversed

Eg:

Normal AAT CCG GCA TTC TAT

Inversion AAT CCG ACG TTC TAT

inversion here
 Chromosome mutations
Rather than changes in individual bases, whole
chromosomes may be inserted or lost, or bits may be
broken off.
 Chromosome mutations
Rather than changes in individual bases, whole
chromosomes may be inserted or lost, or bits may be
broken off. A relatively common chromosome mutation can
be found when the female ova may contain two copies of
chromosome 21.
 Chromosome mutations
Rather than changes in individual bases, whole
chromosomes may be inserted or lost, or bits may be
broken off. A relatively common chromosome mutation can
be found when the female ova may contain two copies of
chromosome 21.

When fertilised by a normal

sperm, the offspring will
have three copies of
chromosome 21. This is
called trisomy 21 and the
resulting condition is known
as Down’s syndrome.
understand that resistance
to antibiotics can increase
in bacterial populations,
and appreciate how such an
increase can lead to
infections being difficult
to control
Resistance in bacteria
Scientists try to control the
spread of bacteria using
antibiotics .
Resistance in bacteria
Scientists try to control the
spread of bacteria using
antibiotics .

Gene mutations can result

in bacteria becoming
resistant to the use of
antibiotics.
Resistance in bacteria
Scientists try to control the
spread of bacteria using
antibiotics .

Gene mutations can result

in bacteria becoming
resistant to the use of
antibiotics.

Resistant bacteria have an

advantage over non-
resistant bacteria and so
spread through the
population.
 Resistance in bacteria
Scientists try to control the
spread of bacteria using
antibiotics .

Gene mutations can result

in bacteria becoming
resistant to the use of
antibiotics.

Resistant bacteria have an

advantage over non-
resistant bacteria and so
spread through the
population.

This is an example of natural selection in action.

“describe the
process of
evolution by
means of natural
selection”
“describe the
process of
evolution by
means of natural
selection”
“describe the
process of
evolution by
means of natural
selection”
 End of Section 3 Lesson 4

In this lesson we have covered:

Chromosomes
Inheritance of Sex
Mitosis
Meiosis
Variation
Mutations