SOIL POTASSIUM

FORM, SOURCE and

FUNCTION IN PLANT
• Potassium (K)

– Absorbed by plant > P, Ca, Mg but < N

– Total K Soil is very hight, but available K is low,

– especially in tropica because :

• Content of mineral K is low

• High rain fall
• Hihg temperature release K

• leaching K
 Potassium (K)
– Plant available form: K+

– Fertilizer form: K2O

– Plant and soil mobile

– Amount Present
originally high in many soils
usually better supplies than P and N
 Potassium
Source
1. Commercial fertilizers
2. Manures
3. Plant residues, including green manure
4. Native compounds- Orthoclase, Micas
 Mineral containing K
• Feldspar ortoklas,
• microcline (KAlSi2O3)
Muscovit KAl3Si3O10
(OH2)
• Biotit K(NgFe)3AlSi3O10(OH2)
Plagopite KMg2Al2Si3O10 (OH2)
–Availability of K is
Biotit > Muscovit > Feldspar

Clay mineral : illit, vermicullite, chlorites

The Potassium Cycle
 Potassium Cycle

Havlin et al., 2001

How Potassium Moves in Soil
 FORM OF SOIL POTASSIUM

Relatively unavailable
K
(Feldspars, Micas, Etc
90-98% of total K

Slowly available K Readily Available K

Non - Exchangeable K (fixed) Exchangeable K & K in
1 - 10% of total K Soil Solution. 1-2 % of total K
 SLOWLY AVAILABLE K
K release during mineral weathering

Recolored from Fig. 6.9 in Havlin et al. (1999)

• Slowly Availabel K
• K adsorb/ K nonexchangeable
• High on Soil with mineral 2:1
–Illit, vermicullit, chlorite.
–K is fixed between sheets Si and Al

• Readily Available K
» K exchangeable
» Soil solution K
» Can absorb by plant
 READILY AVAILABLE K
Exchangeable vs . Non-exchangeable K’

Exchangeable K
Readily buffers
soil solution K

Non-Exchangeable K
Slowly buffers
Soil tests measure exchangeable K
soil solution K
 Factors Influencing Fixation K
• Wetting/drying
• Freeze/thaw
• Oxidation state of Fe
• Clay mineralogi
• Soil Reaction
• Concentration of added K
 Wetting/Drying
• Exchangeable K can increase or decrease when
soil is dried
– Is dependent upon the clay minerals present

• K fixation can occur

– Soils with high exchangeable K or recent K fertilizer
applications are dried
– Fixation is a result of K becoming trapped within clay
sheets as they dry and collapse

• K release can occur

– Soils low in exchangeable K are dried
– The clay sheets roll back and release K
 Wetting/Drying
• Net effect depends on whether fixation or
release dominates

• Time of soil sampling in relation to field

wetting and drying cycles may influence
soil test K levels
 Freeze/Thaw
• Fixed K released with freeze/thaw
– Soils with considerable amount of mica

• K release/fixation not impacted by freeze/thaw

– Soils with smaller amounts of mica & greater amounts
of exchangeable K

• STK may be different in spring v. fall

– Depending on clay minerals present & winter weather
conditions
 Oxidation State of Fe
• Fe structural component in clay minerals
• Fe has different oxidation states
– Fe3+ - oxidized
– Fe2+ - reduced

• In smectites, as Fe3+ → Fe2+, K is fixed

• In illite, as Fe3+ → Fe2+, K is released

• In soils containing both illite & smectite, net

effect of fixation/release depends on which clay
mineral dominates
• Clay Mineral (quantity and nature )
– Type mineral 1:1 do not fix K
– Type mineral 2: 1. fix K

• Soil Reaction
– Al3 and AlOH >>> fixation <<<

• Concentration of added K
– Increasing conc K in soil with high fixation
capacity , encourage fixation
• :
 SOIL FACTOR AFFECTING K
AVAILABILITY to PLANT
• Kinds of Clay Mineral
– Soil with clay mineral high in K >>>>,
potential K availability is greater.
– Soil containing Kaolinit have K <<<< than soil
with montmorilonite/ vermicullite.
– Sandy soils low in K .
• Cation exchange Capacity (CEC).
– Amaount and type of clay
– Soil organic matter
• The amount of Exchangeable K
– Respon plant to applies K is correlated with
soil K.
• Capacity to Fix K
– Some K that is fixed can be released to crop

• Sub Soil K and Rooting Depth

– Exchangeable levels K in subsoil vary with
soil type.
– Soil physics properties influent K availability
 78 % of K
supplied
• Soil moisture to root via
diffusion
– Low soil moisture results in more tortuous path
for K diffusion – takes longer to get to root
– Increasing K levels or soil moisture will
increase K diffusion
– Increase soil moisture from 10 to 28 % can
increase toatl K transport by up to 175 %

• Soil Aeration
– High moisture results in restricted root growth,
low O2 and slowed K absorption by the root
• Soil Temperature.
– Tempetarure as a factor strongly affects
uptake K by plant
– Low temperature

– Plant processes
– Plant growth low
– Rate of K uptake
• Soil pH
– In very acid soil toxic amount of Exc Al and
Mn create an unfafourable root environment
for uptake K. or any other element (Mg). or
basic cation.
– Uptake Mg <<< plant growth reduce

– uptake K reduce
• Calcium and Magnesium
– Ca and Mg compete with K for entry to plant
– Soil high in basic cation require high K
– K uptake Ca and Mg
• Amount of Other Nutrient
+P

-P
Tillage
– Tillage practices influence Availability K by
modifying other factor:
• Oxigen/ aeration
• Temperature
• Soil moisture
• Available of K fertilizer.

• Minimum/No tillage availability K <<<

– Compaction
– Less aeration
– Lower temperature
– K fertilizer on soil surface
Corn yield advantage of deep-
banded K over broadcast or
planter-band K
Tillage System Advantage
bu/acre
Ridge-till 8
No-till 4-5
Chisel-disk 2
Mallarino, Iowa
 Environmental Factors Affecting K
Availability to a Plant
• Leaching
– K leaching can occur on course textured or
muck soils particularly if irrigated
– Large fall K applications to sandy or muck
soils discouraged
 Leaching
Relatively easily leached
Sandy soils loss is greater
20 lbs/acre/year not uncommon in humid
region
What does a soil test measure?
• Soil test K measures:
– K in soil solution
– Exchangeable K

• Seasonal variation in soil test K is known

to exist
– Sample at about same time each year to
minimize this factor
 Interpreting soil test K results

Medium & fine soils Course textured soils†

No Optimu
Crop Optimum No response
response m

------------------- Soil Test K (ppm) -------------------

Alfalfa 91 – 120 > 170 81 - 120 > 180

Corn 81 – 100 > 140 66 – 90 > 130
Soybea †
Not irrigated
81 – 100 > 140 60 – 80 > 120
n
 Crop Removal

3 - 4 times that of P
Removal equal to nitrogen
Luxury consumption
- Take up more K in the plant thant what
is needed for optimim growth
 Excess K+ Concerns
• Grass Tetany
– High levels of K+ and N in the plant can cause
reduced amounts of plant magnesium (Mg)
– This can cause a Mg deficiency in grazing animals,
and cause a condition called grass tetany or
hypocalcaemia
– Avoid over-application of K+ to pastures
• Environmental Concerns
– Generally, excess K+ in surface water has not been a
concern
• Agronomic considerations
– Soil Test
– Provide adequate K for crop production
 K Sources – Inorganic

Chemical Fertilizer Salt

Fertilizer
Formula Analysis Index
Potassium chloride 0-0-60 to
KCl 116
(muriate of potash) 0-0-62
Potassium K2SO42MgSO4 0-0-22 43
magnesium sulfate

Potassium nitrate KNO3 13-0-44 74

Potassium sulfate K2SO4 0-0-50 46
 K Sources - Organic
• Break down of crop residue
• Manures
– Majority of K is soluble
• 80 % of total K in manure available the year of
application
• 10 % of total K is available 2nd year after
application
• 5 % of total K is available 3nd year after application
– Book values
• Dairy solid – 9 lb K2O/ton
• Dairy liquid – 20 lb K2O/1000 gal
• Biosolids
Response of corn to row-applied K on
a silty clay loam soil (3 yr. avg.)

Oshkosh, Wis. (45 lb K20/a)

Wolkowski, WI
 Broadcast vs. Band
K2O applied Placement Corn Yield
(lb/acre) (bu/acre)
0 - 114
40 Starter (band) 143
100 Broadcast 136
200 Broadcast 141

Soil test (0-6”) = 85 ppm; considered medium (optimum)

Goodhue County, Minnesota
From Rehm & Schmitt, 1997
 Importance of K in Starter
Fertilizers
• Response to deep-banded K at high soil tests
– Ridge-till and no-till
• More frequent starter response at soil test K <
140 ppm
• Offset soil compaction effects
– Restricted root volume
– Poor aeration – limited K uptake
• More consistent starter response
Effect of tillage and soil test K on
corn response to starter fertilizer
Soil test K (ppm)
Tillage 50-60 100-145 145-190
------- Response, bu/acre -------
Ridge-till 45 12 3
Chisel 13 7 8
Moldbrd. 20 5 7
Moncrief & Schulte; 8-48-12 starter fert.
Arlington, WI
Corn yield advantage of deep-
banded K over broadcast or
planter-band K
Tillage System Advantage
bu/acre
Ridge-till 8
No-till 4-5
Chisel-disk 2
Mallarino, Iowa
 Influence of Potassium on
Plants
1. Favorable effects (pengaruh menguntungkan)
a. Increase disease resistance
b. Increase root systems
c. Delayed maturity (memperlambat kematangan)
d. Helps chlorophyll development
e. Seed development
f. helps with tuber development (membantu
penbentukan umbi)

g. Inceases winter hardiness (meningkatkan

ketahanan pada musim dingin)
 Influence of Potassium on
Plants

2. Deficiency symptoms (lower leaves)

a. Dry yellow edges - corn (gejala kuning kering)
b. Small white dots on leaves - Legume (bintik
putih kecil pd daun)

c. Irregular chlorosis (klorosis luar biasa)

 Excess K+ Concerns
• Grass Tetany
– High levels of K+ and N in the plant can cause
reduced amounts of plant magnesium (Mg)
– This can cause a Mg deficiency in grazing animals,
and cause a condition called grass tetany or
hypocalcaemia
– Avoid over-application of K+ to pastures
• Environmental Concerns
– Generally, excess K+ in surface water has not been a
concern
• Agronomic considerations
– Soil Test
– Provide adequate K for crop production
C. Potassium (K)

1) Soil Relations
- Present in large amounts in mineral soil
- Low in organic soils
2) Plant Functions
- Activator of many enzymes
- Regulation of water movement across membranes and through stomata
(Guard cell functions)
3) Deficiency and Toxicity
- Deficiency: Leaf margin necrosis and browning
Older leaves are more affected
- Toxicity: Leaf tip and marginal necrosis
4) Fertilizers
- Potassium chloride (KCl)- murate of potash
- Potassium sulfate (K2SO4)
- Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
 POTASSIUM in PLANT
• The content of K in plants is almost as high as for N,ranging
from about 1 to 5 %. Potassium functions as a co-factor
(stimulator) for several enzyme reactions and is involved in the
regulation of water in plants by influencing turgor pressure of
stomatal guard cells.
• Potassium is mobile in plants and the deficiency symptoms are
similar to those for N, except the chlorosis progresses from the
tip, along the leaf margins (instead of the midrib), toward the
base of the oldest leaf.

• Leaf margins usually die soon after chlorosis develops,

resulting in a condition referred to as “firing” or leaf burn.
Deficiencies are related to soil parent material, fertilizer use
and cropping histories.
 Potassium Deficiency.
• Common in crops grown in weathered soils
developed under high rainfall.

– Symptoms are chlorosis at the tip of the

oldest leaf (like N), that progresses toward the
base along the leaf margins.
 Potassium Deficiency.
– Chlorosis at the tip of the oldest leaf progressing
toward the base along the leaf margins (corn, alfalfa).
Leaf Margin Necrosis in n Poinsettia
Potassium (K) Deficiency
 KALIUM
Sumber K dalam tanah:
• Kalium berasal dari mineral primer dan sekunder
liat.DARI BATUAN feldspars, mika, muscovit,
biotit mengandung K sekitar 8 %. Sumber K
yang lain berasal dari mineral liat illit yang
mengikat K
• penggunaan pupuk K yang berupa K2SO4 atau
KCl,
• kotoran binatang dan sisa tanaman yang sudah
mati, serta
• berasal dari air hujan
 KEHILANGAN K dari tanah
melalui :

• diangkut melalui hasil tanaman dan

binatang,
• pencucian keluar dari profil tanah,
• tererosi; dan
• terfiksasi kedalam liat.
Peranan K
• Mempengaruhi fotosintesis (meningkatkan kandungan pati dalam biji,
kandungan gula pada buah-buahan, membuat polong berisi)
• Menunjang perkembangan protein
• Meningkatkan ketebalan lapisan kutikula
• Meningkatkan aktifitas enzim
• Meningkatkan kekuatan & ketahanan tanaman terhadap kerebahan
K menjaga integritas struktural komponen sel
tanaman yang kurang K, parenchyma hancur  integritas struktur
berkurang  tanaman mudah roboh
• K perlu untuk perkembangan lignin & sellulosa sehingga tanaman
menjadi kuat & kaku
• K mendorong perkembangan akar tanaman
• K meningkatkan ketahanan terhadap penyakit
• Berperan dalam menutup & membuka stomata
tanaman yang cukup K  akan menutup stomata lebih cepat jika
terkena angin kering yang panas
Sifat-sifat K
- Terdapat dalam cairan sel
- Bukan bagian dari senyawa organik dalam tanaman
- Mudah diserap
- Sangat mobil  mudah bergerak
- Umumnya lebih cepat diserap daripada N & P
- Mudah terakumulasi (luxury consumption)

Gejala defisiensi K
jau
Hi
1. Daun yang tua berwarna hijau terang
2. Perkembangan akar terbatas & batang lemah
3. Pertumbuhan tanaman lambat
4. Biji & buah kecil & berkerut
5. Ketahanan terhadap penyakit tertentu berkurang
 FAKTOR YANG MENENTUKAN
EFISIENSI PEMUPUKAN K:
• sifat tanah, diantaranya KTK, kemasaman, dan
tekstur tanahnya,
• proses kontak K dengan sistem perakaran,
• tingginya curah hujan,
• kemungkinan adanya hara pembatas lainnya,
• kandungan K dalam tanah dari residu tanaman
sebelumnya,
• tingkat kegaraman dari pupuk K yang ditambahkan,
• distribusi sistem perakaran; dan
• tingkat respons varietas atau kultivar yang ditanam.