Ch5 - BBM 10103 Processing

CHAPTER 5:
Processing
(Iron &Steel)
#Mr. Muhammad Azri Bin Othman#BBM 10103# Pemilihan Bahan# SEM1 SESI 2013/2014#
Introduction
Metals form about a quarter of the earth crust by weight
One of the earliest material used dated back to
pre-historic time. Some of the earliest metals used include:
copper, bronze and iron
Stone age  Bronze age  … ’discovery’ of steel

Industrial Revolution in the 18th century
All metals except gold are generally found chemically

combined with other elements in the form of
oxides and sulphates. Commonly known as ores.
Pure Metals and Alloys
Metal that are not mixed with any other materials are known
as pure metals. Metals listed in the Periodic Table are pure
metals
E.g. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn)
Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals formed together
with other elements/materials to create new metals with
improved Mechanical Properties and other properties
of the base metal.
E.g. Brass (Copper and Zinc),

Stainless steel (steel and chromium)
Alloy = metal A + metal B + … + other elements 3

Ferrous Metals & Non-Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals are metals that contain iron
E.g. Steel (iron and carbon)
Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron

E.g. Zinc (pure metal), Bronze (Copper and tin)
(non-ferrous may contain slight traces of iron)
Ferrous Metal = alloy metals that contains iron
( Primary base metal is iron)
Non-ferrous Metal = alloy metals that do not contain iron

Primary base metal does not contain iron)
4
Classification
Metals can be divided into 2 groups
Metals
Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals
Iron Aluminum
Low Carbon Steel Copper
Medium Carbon Steel Brass
High Carbon Steel Bronze
Cast Iron Zinc
Stainless Steel Lead
Tool Steels Tin
Others Others
5
Ferrous Metals
• principle element is iron, cast iron, steel,
wrought iron.
• Metals come from ore, "minerals" ore consists
of metal and gangue (valueless extra)
• Mining
– open pit
– underground
Extraction of Iron
•Iron is found in iron oxide in the earth.
•Three primary iron ores: magnetite, hematite, taconite
•Iron is extracted using blast furnace
• Steps in extraction of iron
Ores is washed, crushed and
mixed with limestone and coke
The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted
Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is used to

convert the iron oxides to iron
7
Extraction of Iron
Limestone helps to separate the impurities from
the metal
The liquid waste is known as slag that floats on the
molten iron
They are then tapped off (separated)
The iron produced is only about 90% to 95% pure.
The iron is then further refined using the basic
oxygen furnace and the electric arc furnace to
produce steel which is widely used now.
8
Iron making Steel making Continuous casting Rolling Main products
Rail
Integrated Sheet pile
Open DCS
Shape
Pellet Coke Section mill Bar
Wire rod
Iron ore Sintered Limestone
ore Wire rod mill
Plate
Hot
direct Plate mill
Billet rolling
Hot metal Hot rolled coil
(HDR)
and sheet
Hot strip mill
Basic oxygen furnace
(BOF) Bloom
Cold rolled coil
and sheet
(also for plating)
Slab Cold rolling tandem mill
Blast furnace
(BF) Welded pipe
Butt welded pipe
Welded pipe mill
Scrap Electric arc furnace
(EAF) Seamless pip
Seamless pipe mill
Reheating furnace
Field Instrument Steel casting
& Control Valves
Steelmaking made simple
Steel scrap
Iron Ore
Coal/Coke
Natural gas
Oil
Electricity
Blast Furnace Oxygen Steelmaking Secondary Steelmaking
Steel scrap
Coal/Coke
Electricity
Natural Gas
Electric Arc Steelmaking Continuous Casting

Iron Production
• Blast Furnace
– Reduces iron ore to
metal
– Separates metal
from impurities
• Molten Iron
• Slag
What is a Blast Furnace?
•The purpose of a blast
furnace is to reduce and
convert iron oxides into
liquid iron called "hot
metal".
•The blast furnace is a
huge, steel stack lined with
refractory brick.
•Iron ore, coke and
limestone are put into the
top, and preheated air is
blown into the bottom.
Why does Iron have to be extracted in a Blast
Furnace???
•Iron can be extracted by the blast furnace because it

can be displaced by carbon.
•This is more efficient method than electrolysis because
it is more cost effective
The Method
Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of
iron from its ore. The combined mixture is called the
charge:
Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide,
Fe2O3.
Limestone (calcium carbonate).
Coke - mainly carbon
The charge is placed a giant chimney called a blast
furnace. The blast furnace is around 30 metres high and
lined with fireproof bricks. Hot air is blasted through the
bottom.
Several reactions take place before the iron is finally
produced...
•Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon

dioxide:
C(s) + O 2(g)  CO2(g)
•The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

CaCO3(s)  CO2 (g) + CaO(s)
•Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke

to produce carbon monoxide:
CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g)
• The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the
ore to give molten iron:
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
• The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to

form slag (calcium silicate):
CaO(s) + SiO(s)  CaSiO3(l)
•Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom
of the furnace.
•The slag is mainly used to build roads.
•The iron whilst molten is poured into moulds and

left to solidify - this is called cast iron and is used to
make railings and storage tanks.
•The rest of the iron is used to make steel.
Process: Iron Ore → Steel
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2+C 2CO
and iron ore 3CO+Fe 2O3 2Fe +3CO 2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO 3 CaO+CO 2
CaO + SiO 2 +Al2O3 slag
Basic Oxygen Furnace
In the basic oxygen process, steel is also refined in a pear-
shaped furnace that tilts sideways for charging and pouring.
Air, however, has been replaced by a high-pressure stream of
nearly pure oxygen. After the furnace has been charged and
turned upright, an oxygen lance is lowered into it. The water-
cooled tip of the lance is usually about 2 m (about 6 ft) above
the charge although this distance can be varied according to
requirements. Thousands of cubic meters of oxygen are blown
into the furnace at supersonic speed. The oxygen combines
with carbon and other unwanted elements and starts a high-
temperature churning reaction that rapidly burns out impurities
from the pig iron and converts it into steel. The refining
process takes 50 min or less; approximately 275 metric tons of
steel can be made in an hour. 20
Basic Oxygen process
Electric-Furnace Steel
In some furnaces, electricity instead of fire supplies the
heat for the melting and refining of steel. Because refining
conditions in such a furnace can be regulated more strictly
than in open-hearth or basic oxygen furnaces, electric
furnaces are particularly valuable for producing stainless
steels and other highly alloyed steels that must be made to
exacting specifications. Refining takes place in a tightly
closed chamber, where temperatures and other conditions
are kept under rigid control by automatic devices. During
the early stages of this refining process, high-purity
oxygen is injected through a lance, raising the temperature
of the furnace and decreasing the time needed to produce
the finished steel. The quantity of oxygen entering the
furnace can always be closely controlled, thus keeping
down undesirable oxidizing reactions.
Ferrous Metals - Iron and Steel
Pure iron is soft and ductile to be of much practical use.
BUT when carbon is added, useful set of alloys are
produced.
They are known as carbon steel.
The amount of carbon will determine the hardness of the
steel.
The carbon amount ranges from 0.1% to 4%.
Types of Steel
Steel
•Low carbon steel (mild steel)

•Medium carbon steel
•High carbon steel (tool steels)
•Cast iron
Alloy Steels
•Stainless steel
•High speed steel
26
Low Carbon Steel
Also known as mild steel
Contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon
Tough, ductile and malleable

Easily joined and welded
Poor resistance to corrosion
Often used a general purpose material
Nails, screws, car bodies,

Structural Steel used in the construction industry
28
Medium Carbon Steel
•Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon
•Offer more strength and hardness BUT

less ductile and malleable
•Structural steel, rails and garden tools
29
High Carbon Steel
Also known as ‘tool steel’
Contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon
Very hard but offers Higher

Strength Less ductile
and less malleable
Hand tools (chisels, punches)

Saw blades
30
Cast Iron
Contains 2%-4% of carbon
Very hard and brittle

Strong under compression
Suitable for casting [can be pour at a relatively
low temperature]
Engine block, engineer vices, machine parts
31
Cast Iron
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting Temperature (also brittle) so easiest to
cast
• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite
– Fe3C →3Fe (α) + C (graphite)
• generally a slow process
True Fe-C Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
 “Graphite 1600
formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by g +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200 g 1153°C
• slow cooling Austenite 4.2 wt% C
1000
+g g + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
 + Graphite
400
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
(Fe) Co , wt% C
Types of Cast Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
 Ductile Cast Iron

• add Mg or Ce
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better ductility
Types of Cast Iron
 White Iron
• <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
• more cementite
 Malleable Iron
• heat treat at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• more ductile
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better ductility
Cast Iron Production
Stainless Steel
Steel alloyed with
chromium (18%), nickel (8%), magnesium (8%)
Hard and tough
Corrosion resistance
Comes in different grades
Sinks, cooking utensils, surgical instruments
37
Main types:
Stainless Steels
Ferritic chromium:
very formable, relatively weak;
used in architectural trim, kitchen range hoods, jewelry,
decorations, utensils Grades 409, 430, and other 400
Austentitic nickel-chromium:
non-magnetic, machinable, weldable, relatively weak; used in
architectural products, such as fascias, curtain walls,
storefronts, doors & windows, railings; chemical processing,
food utensils, kitchen applications.
series. Grades 301, 302, 303, 304, 316, and other 300 series.
38
Martensitic chromium:
High strength, hardness, resistance to abrasion; used
in turbine parts, bearings, knives, cutlery and
generally Magnetic. Grades 17-4, 410, 416, 420, 440
and other 400 series
Maraging (super alloys):

High strength, high Temperature alloy used in
structural applications, aircraft components and are
generally magnetic. Alloys containing around 18%
Nickel.
39
High Speed Steel
Medium Carbon steel alloyed with
Tungsten, chromium, vanadium
Very hard
Resistant to frictional heat even at high temperature
Can only be ground
Machine cutting tools (lathe and milling)

Drills
40
General Issues about Steel
• Steel has been called the world’s most useful and
inexpensive metal.
• In recent decades, steel manufacturers have been

forced to take a much closer look at what their
processes have been doing to the fragile environment
around them.
Steel products
Semi-finished products(continuous cast steel)
Finished products (rolled steel)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
&
TESTING
44
Questions to Think About
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used
instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause
permanent deformation? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we
measure them?
• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials? 45
Stress-Strain Test
specimen
machine
46
Tensile Test
47
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the stress-strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
divided by the original gauge length.
48
Terminology
 Load - The force applied to a material during testing.
 Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial

F
Elastic means reversible.
50
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent.

plastic
51
Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
σy, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual elastic
to plastic transition. 52
Plastic Deformation (permanent)
• From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and
then reforming bonds with new neighbors.
• After removal of the stress, the large
number of atoms that have relocated, do
not return to original position.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance to
plastic deformation.
53
54
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
Permanent Deformation
• Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
intended.
56
Yield Strength, y
tensile stress, 
y
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002
57
ultimate
Stress-Strain Diagram
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
Region
σ  Eε 4
fracture
σ 1
E
ε E
ε ε
σy Strain ( 
) (DL/Lo)
#Mr. Muhammad Azri Bin Othman#BBM 10103# Pemilihan 2
Bahan# SEM1
1 SESI 2013/2014#
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ  Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)
ε
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.
T
E
N
S
I
L
E
P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S
63
Yield Strength: Comparison
Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
64
Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
• However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
65
In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
66
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
67
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:
Ft

Ao
original area
before loading
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2 68

Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy
Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering

stress and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.
Example 1 SOLUTION
Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E
• Poisson's ratio: n  x/y

metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~0.25
polymers: n ~0.40
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
71
Engineering Strain
Strain is dimensionless.
72
Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in
response to an imposed tensile stress.
73
True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).
•The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stress-
engineering strain diagram.
•The curves are identical to the yield point.
Stress-Strain Results for Steel
Sample
75
Example 2:
Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
From the data in Example 1, calculate the modulus of
elasticity of the aluminum alloy.
Example 2: Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy - continued
• Use the modulus to determine the length after
deformation of a bar of initial length of 50 in.
• Assume that a level of stress of 30,000 psi is applied.
Young’s Moduli: Comparison Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Composite data based on
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10
8 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
Polyester
4 PET fibers.
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE 78
Example 3: True Stress and True
Strain Calculation
Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and
strain for the aluminum alloy in Example 1 at (a) the
maximum load. The diameter at maximum load is 0.497
in. and at fracture is 0.398 in.
Example 3 SOLUTION
Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic
l f  lo
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture:
% EL  x100
lo
A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
Ao  Af
brittle. • Another ductility measure: % AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture)
or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
82
Impact Tests
• Toughness of metals is the ability to withstand
shock load and impact. It will not fracture
when twisted.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, 
Hardness of Materials
 Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material
to penetration by a sharp object.
 Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
 Microhardness Hardness of materials typically
measured using loads less than 2 N using such test as
Knoop (HK).
 Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at
1–10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100
µN) forces.
Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch).
• Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed
where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a
material.
• The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and
corresponds to a hardness number.
• The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
85
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.) 86
Hardness Testers
87
88
Conversion of
Hardness Scales
Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
89
Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
• Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation.
• For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
• Tensile strength (psi) =

500*BHR 90
Toughness is the
ability to absorb Toughness
energy up to
Lower toughness: ceramics
fracture (energy
per unit volume of Higher toughness: metals
material).
A “tough” material
has strength and
ductility.
Approximated by
the area under the
stress-strain
curve.
92
Fatigue
• Fatigue is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
• When a material is subjected to a force acting in different directions at
different times it can cause cracking. In time this causes the material
to fail at a load that is much less than its tensile strength, this is
fatigue failure. Vibration for example is a serious cause of fatigue
failure.
• Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.
Creep
When a weight is hung from a piece of lead

and left for a number of days the lead will
stretch. This is said to be creep. Problems with
creep increase when the materials are subject
to high temperature or the materials
themselves have low melting points such as
lead. Creep can cause materials to fail at a
stress well below there tensile strength.
Mechanical Behavior - Ceramics
• The stress-strain behavior of brittle
ceramics is not usually obtained by a
tensile test.
1. It is difficult to prepare and test
specimens with specific geometry.
2. It is difficult to grip brittle materials without
fracturing them.
3. Ceramics fail after roughly 0.1% strain;
specimen have to be perfectly aligned.
96
The Bend Test for Brittle Materials
 Bend test - Application of a force to the center of a bar

that is supported on each end to determine the
resistance of the material to a static or slowly applied
load.
 Flexural strength or modulus of rupture -The stress
required to fracture a specimen in a bend test.
 Flexural modulus - The modulus of elasticity calculated
from the results of a bend test, giving the slope of the
stress-deflection curve.
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with

that of more ductile materials
(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength
of brittle materials, and (b) the deflection δ obtained by
bending
Flexural Strength
• Schematic for a 3-
point bending test.
• Able to measure the
stress-strain behavior
and flexural strength
of brittle ceramics.
• Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture or
bend strength) is the
stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.
100
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
• Determine elastic modulus according to:
F L3 F L3
E 
3
 4bd  12R 4
rect. circ.
cross cross
section section
23
MEASURING STRENGTH
• 3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2
d R
b
rect. circ.
location of max tension
• Flexural strength: • Typ. values:

Material fs(MPa) E(GPa)
fail 1.5FmaxL FmaxL
 fs   m   Si nitride 700-1000 300
bd2 R3 Si carbide 550-860 430
rect. Al oxide 275-550 390
glass (soda) 69 69
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.
24
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers
3 different responses:
A – brittle failure
B – plastic failure
C - highly elastic (elastomer)
--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)

--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
103
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
104

Ch5 - BBM 10103 Processing

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CHAPTER 5:

Stone age  Bronze age  … ’discovery’ of steel

All metals except gold are generally found chemically

E.g. Brass (Copper and Zinc),

Alloy = metal A + metal B + … + other elements 3

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron

Non-ferrous Metal = alloy metals that do not contain iron

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted

Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is used to

Blast Furnace Oxygen Steelmaking Secondary Steelmaking

Electric Arc Steelmaking Continuous Casting

•Iron can be extracted by the blast furnace because it

•Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon

•The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

•Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke

3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

• The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to

CaO(s) + SiO(s)  CaSiO3(l)

•The slag is mainly used to build roads.

•The iron whilst molten is poured into moulds and

•The rest of the iron is used to make steel.

•Low carbon steel (mild steel)

Tough, ductile and malleable

Nails, screws, car bodies,

•Offer more strength and hardness BUT

•Structural steel, rails and garden tools

Very hard but offers Higher

Hand tools (chisels, punches)

Very hard and brittle

Engine block, engineer vices, machine parts

 Ductile Cast Iron

Maraging (super alloys):

Machine cutting tools (lathe and milling)

• In recent decades, steel manufacturers have been

Finished products (rolled steel)

Elastic means reversible.

• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2 68

Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering

• Poisson's ratio: n  x/y

•The relation between the true stress-true

Engineering tensile strain, 

Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

• Tensile strength (psi) =

• Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

When a weight is hung from a piece of lead

 Bend test - Application of a force to the center of a bar

The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with

• Determine elastic modulus according to:

location of max tension

• Flexural strength: • Typ. values:

--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)

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