ECHOSOUNDER

What is Sounding ?
 Sounding
• In the modern context , Sounding generally
refers to a mechanism of probing the
environment by sending out some kind of
stimulus.

• The term derives from the ancient practice

of determining the depth of water by feeding
out a line with a weight at the end.
But why the word
“Sounding” ??
• “SOUNDING” originated from the old 14th
century Anglo-Saxon word “SUND”

• MEANING : A rather shallow water body

connecting two larger and deeper water
areas *( also : to swim )

• In modern English, a narrow and deep

water inlet connected to the main ocean
is also called a “SOUND”.
 Lead Line : An instrument for discovering the
depth of water used to be :

• a tapered cylinder of lead,

• of 7, 14 or 28 lbs. weight,
• attached to a strong rope,
• which was marked at certain distances to
ascertain the fathoms.

Deep-sea lead: A lead of a larger size, being

from 28 to 56 lbs in weight, and attached to a
much longer line.
• To heave the lead: to throw it into the sea as
far ahead as possible, if the ship is underway.

• Some times the Cylinder was dug out

at the bottom and filled with Tallow
Wax to sample the sea bed.
 Bathymetry = study of ocean floor contours

The early, simplest

methods involved
lowering a weight
2 km on a line.

http://www-groups.mcs.st-
and.ac.uk/history/BigPictures/Posidonius.jpeg

Posidonius
• conducted the first bathymetric studies
• 85 B.C.
Tanner sounding machine Sigbee sounding machine
• developed around 1880 • developed around 1880

http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/operations/sfmapping/images/theb0914_small.jp
g
http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/history/ships/albatross1/sigsbee-sounding.jpg

Sometimes the weight was tipped with wax to

retrieve a sample of bottom sediment.
HMS Challenger
(1872-1876)

• made the first

systematic attempt to
chart the basins of the
world ocean
• made 492 bottom
soundings

confirmed the discovery

of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Scientists now use beams of sound to measure depth.
Scientists now use beams of sound to measure depth.
Reginald Fessenden (1866-1932)

• Canadian inventor
• in 1914, developed a
type of sonar system for
locating icebergs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessend
en

“Iceberg Detector and Echo Depth Sounder”

Reginald Fessenden (1866-1932)

• Canadian inventor
• in 1914, developed a
type of sonar system for
locating icebergs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessend
en

“Iceberg Detector and Echo Depth Sounder”

Reginald Fessenden (1866-1932)

• Canadian inventor
• in 1914, developed a
type of sonar system for
locating icebergs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessend
en

“Iceberg Detector and Echo Depth Sounder”

Reginald Fessenden (1866-1932)

• Canadian inventor
• in 1914, developed a
type of sonar system for
locating icebergs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessend
en

“Iceberg Detector and Echo Depth Sounder”

 Echo sounder
• Echo sounder, is an instrumentation
system for indirectly determining ocean floor
depth from the keel of the vessel.

• The equipment is also sometimes referred to as

“SONAR” which is an acronym for ……
 SONAR

SOUND NAVIGATION AND RANGING

• Echo sounding is based on :

1. The principle that water is an

excellent medium for the
transmission of sound waves

2. A sound pulse will bounce off a

reflecting layer, returning to its
source as an echo.
• The time interval between the initiation
of a sound pulse and echo returned from
the bottom can be used to determine the
depth of the bottom.
Illustration of echo sounding
An echo-sounding system consists of :
• a transmitter,
• a receiver that picks up the reflected echo,
• electronic amplification, timing and
processing equipment, and
• an indicator or graphic recorder.
 Technique
Depth calculation method :
• Find the time taken from the transmission of
outgoing pulse to reception of its returning echo.

• Multiply it by the speed of sound in the water,

( 1505 Meters per second ) and then ...

• Divide it by 2 ( two ).

• Depth : d = v x t ÷ 2
Scheme of echosounding
Echo sounders
sense the
contour of the
seafloor by
beaming sound
waves to the
bottom and
measuring the
time required for
V = speed of sound in
the sound waves
water
to bounce back (about 1.5 km/sec)
to the ship. T = time
 Common use

• As well as an aid to navigation, echo

sounding is commonly used for fish
finding as well.
• Most charted ocean depths use
an average or standard sound
speed.

• Where greater accuracy is

required seasonal or local
standards may be applied to
certain ocean regions.
 For high accuracy depths, usually restricted to
special purpose or scientific surveys, a sensor
may be lowered to observe following factors :
• temperature,
• pressure and
• Salinity
and integrate these into calculations
and thus determine the actual sound of
speed in the local water column
 IMO standards
Should be capable of measuring any clearance under
the transducer between 2 and 400 m.

Should provide min of 2 range scales one of which, the

deep range, should cover the whole range of depth,
and the other, the shallow range, one tenth thereof.

The scale of display should not be smaller than 2.5 mm

per meter depth on the shallow range scale and 2.5
mm per meter depth on the deep range scale.
• Block diagram of an Echo Sounder.
Pulse
Generator Recorder Amplifiers

Transmitter Receiver
T/R switch

Transducer
Transmitted Returning
pulse Echo
One of the most important component
of an Echosounding System is the
Transducer

A transducer is a device that converts

one type of energy to another.
 Transducer
The conversion can be to or from :
• electrical,
• mechanical,
• magnetic,
• photonic,
• photovoltaic, …. or any other form of energy.
 Types of Transducers

Transducers may be categorized by

application:
• sensor,
• actuator, or
• BOTH !! ( sensor/actuator )
While the term transducer commonly implies
use as a sensor/actuator, any device which
converts energy can be considered to be a
transducer.

For example : A Loudspeaker which converts

electrical energy to mechanical energy by
moving the speaker cone which consequently
generates sound energy.
 Combination Transducers

A typical Echosounder ‘s transducer will switch

back and forth many times in a second :

• From being an actuator to produce ultrasonic

sound pulses ,

• To a sensor to detect returning ultrasonic echo

pulses.
When RF energy is applied to a transducer :

1. It will cause the unit to oscillate at its natural

resonant frequency.

2. The transmitting face of the unit is placed in

contact with seawater.

3. Therefore these oscillations would cause

acoustic waves to be transmitted in the water.
• Likewise, any reflected energy will cause a
reciprocal action at the transducer.

• If the reflected energy comes into contact

with the transducer face, natural resonant
oscillations will again be produced.

• These oscillations will in turn create a minute

e.m.f. which is then processed by the receiver
to produce the necessary data for display.
 Types of Transducers

• Electrostrictive transducers

• Magnetostrictive Transducers

• Piezoelectric Resonators
 Electrostrictive Transducers
• Materials like quartz, exhibit pressure electric effects when
they are subjected to mechanical stress

• Crystal formations of certain materials contain random

electric domains which when applied with a mechanical
stress, will tend to line up in the direction of the applied
stress to produce a potential difference across the two
plate ends.

• alternatively, if a voltage is applied across the plate ends

of a crystal section, it’s length will be varied.

• Such materials - especially like the much used Lead

Zirconate Titanate - is said to be Ferro-electric in nature
( similar to Ferro-magnetic substances)
**
 Electrostrictive Transducers

Limitations :

The natural resonant frequency of the crystal slice

is inversely proportional to its thickness.

Therefore, at ultrasonic frequencies, these slices

become relatively thin and fragile .
**
 Drawback of thin Crystal Slices
It becomes unsuitable for Large vessels where
huge pressure is developed along the bow and
hull.

Also, the amount of transmitter power will have to

be maintained at high levels to over come
attenuation while tracking deep water areas.

These high power Ultrasonic signals tend to

cause high mechanical stresses on the crystal
slice, which when combined with high water
pressure on large vessels, will result in break up
of the crystal slice.
 Electrostrictive Transducers

But all the same, we can’t use lower

frequencies because, then, crystal slice
will have to be excessively thick, and it
will require massive transmitter power
to cause it to oscillate.
• Therefore on large merchant vessels these are
normally used only for low power with high
frequency applications such as Doppler speed
logging systems for two reasons :

1. Doppler log operates at higher frequencies

for a better focused beam for speed tracking.

2. It does not need a high power transmission

– unlike echosounders – as we are not
looking at tracking deep sea-beds and
therefore no need to overcome attenuation
problems.
Piezo-electric transducer
• This type makes use of the special properties of
crystals (e.g. crystals of barium-titanate and
lead zirconate).
• If an alternating voltage is applied to the opposite faces
of a flat piece of one of the above materials, the crystal
will expand and contract, and hence vibrate creating
sound waves for as long as the vibrations continue.
• The process is reversible, i.e. when varying pressure
from a returning echo, is applied to the opposite faces,
an alternating voltage is generated across the faces and
the same can be further amplified and used to activate
an indicator.
**
 Piezoelectric Resonator
• For smaller vessels, where the external stresses are
not so severe, the simple Piezo electric resonator is
used.

• If a Ceramic or Quartz crystal slice is mounted at its

corners so that it is able to flex at its natural resonant
frequency, acoustic oscillations can be produced.

• This action is also reciprocal.

**
 Magnetostrictive Transducers
• Magnetostriction refers to an effect by which
ferromagnetic substances, particularly Nickel or
Nickel alloys undergo changes in length under
the influence of a magnetic field.

• This type of transducer is cheaper to

manufacture and is more robust which makes it
most suitable for Echo sounding applications on
large Cargo vessels.
**
Care of Transducers in a dry dock
Main Controls Of Echo Sounder
• ON/OFF
• GAIN
• DEPTH RANGE
• PULSE
• PAPER FEED
• CABINET LIGHT
• MARKER
 1 . ON/OFF
• Normally ON/OFF switch is
part of the gain control
knob, which turns on/off
power.
 2. GAIN
• It is like volume control of a
radio. If you increase the gain ,
the returning echo will be
louder and the stylus makes
darker marks
• b) Gain – The gain entails signal
amplification. The amplification of the signal
also amplifies
• the noise and consequently the data record
may be confused. It is recommended that the
gain
• is adjusted according to the seabed type and
to the transmission power.
 3. DEPTH RANGE
• Depth range is the layer or
thickness of the column of
water that you can see on
your echo sounder picture.
 4. PULSE
• The length of the pulse can
be adjusted using the
PULSE knob.
• Pulse length – The pulse length is usually selected
automatically as a function of the
• operating range. The pulse length is responsible for the
vertical resolution of the echo
• sounder, short pulses are necessary for a better
resolution. It may be necessary to increase the
• pulse length in areas with poor reflectivity or with
steep slopes.
• In shallow waters, where resolution is more important,
short pulses must be used. This will
• reduce the probability of false echoes due to strong
reverberation.
• Phase scale – The phase scale is one way to
overcome limitations of the recording resolution
• imposed by the echo trace scale. The phase scale
consists of recording just one depth
• window which should be changed, either
manually or automatically, to maintain the
seabed
• recording with a satisfactory vertical resolution
no matter the water depth
 5. PAPER FEED
• Speed of the echo sounder paper
moving from one roll to the other can
be adjusted with this control.
• This speed is particularly important
and should be selected to ensure
good
horizontal resolution from depth
measurements.
 6. CABINET LIGHT
• The window of the cabinet has
a light so that observer can see
the paper when he is using the
echo sounder during night
time.
 7.MARKER
• This button allows the observer
to make vertical lines on the
recording paper. Press the marker
button before and the stylus
makes a thin line until the button
is released
 Siting of Transducers
The transducer unit installation shall be sited so as
to avoid, :

1. The vicinity of all underwater openings on the hull

2. Projections from, the hull, such as plugs, anodes or

other transducers.

It should be ideally installed, approximately at a

point that is just inside 1/3rd ship length behind the
bow so that it will be just inside the limit of an area
beyond which the bow-wave that is re-entering the
sea generates a lot of turbulence under the keel.
 Siting of Display Unit
The echo sounder graphical display shall, where
practicable, be sited :

1. On the bridge in a position to facilitate easy

access and viewing,

2. Where the effect of any lighting necessary for

the equipment does not interfere with the
keeping of an effective look-out.
**
• Sound velocity – This is the nominal value of sound velocity that
should correspond to the
• mean sound velocity in the area of operation. In surveys with more
demanding accuracies,
• the sound velocity may be set to the sound velocity at the
transducer face or to 1500 m/s and then during data processing,
the depth must be corrected by applying the actual sound
velocity profile.
• In classical analogue echo sounders, this parameter does not
correspond to the sound velocity but to the value that calibrates
the mechanical and electrical echo sounder components to
measure the correct water depth.
Common Errors on
Echosounder
Difference in Velocity and Time Error

Due to difference in salinity, Pressure,

and temperature difference of water in
different oceans, the velocity of sound
varies, and this effect will make depth
measurement erratic.

Adjustment tables are published and

made available by the Admiralty to
overcome the above error.
 Approximate effects
The speed of sound increases with increasing salinity,
temperature and pressure as follows :

Temp. 1 ° C = 4.0 m/Sec

Salinity 1 ppt = 1.4 m/Sec
Depth ( pressure ) 1 km = 17 m/Sec

These may vary from sea surface to deep oceans as

follows :

Temp : 20°C to 2°C ( Degree Celsius )

Salinity : 34 to 35 ppt ( Parts per thousand )
Pressure : 0 to 500 atm ( Atmospheres )
 Sound Speed Profile
1490 m/sec 1500 m/sec
0m
100 m

1000 m
DEPTH

4000 m
 Transmission line error
• This is caused by the misalignment of the
reference ‘ ZERO ’ on the scale.

• Reference ‘ ZERO ‘ sets the timer of the

recorder unit.

• If the reference ‘ ZERO ‘ is not set at ‘ 0 ‘ ,

then a false time and recording will be
obtained.
**
Transmission line error

Scale Zero

Reference
Zero
• If the transmission line is set to the depth of the
transducers, the recorded depth will be below the
surface of the sea.
• If it is set to the zero of the scale, depths will be
recorded below the transducers.
• Should the transducers be higher than the keel, by
say 1m, then setting the transmission line to read -1
would give recorded depth below the keel.
• If transmission line is set to depth of transducers care
is necessary when ship proceeds from salt to fresh
water.
 PYTHAGOREAN ERROR

This error is encountered with

the use of separated
transducers for transmission
and reception in continuous
wave systems.
 PYTHAGOREAN ERROR
The error is caused by the measurement of the
‘Slant distance ‘ as opposed to the vertical
distance under the keel.

Tx Rx

Actual depth
Path Travelled
 Aeration
• The presence of air in water
will affect speed as follows :

• Velocity of sound 330 m/sec in air and ….

• 1500m/sec in water.
 Cure for aeration
• Possible cure for aeration
include stopping or reducing
the vessel’s speed and abrupt
movement of the rudder
either way, to sweep away
bubbles formed.
 Errors due to False echoes

• Multiple echoes are caused by

the transmitted pulse being
reflected several times between
the sea bed and the water
surface before energy being
dispersed
Errors due to false echoes
 Method to reduce false echoes

•These multiple echoes

can be reduced in
strength by decreasing
the gain control on the
equipment.
 Reverberation Noise
• Reverberation noise is the term used to
describe noise created and affected by
own transmission.
• The signal – to – noise ratio cannot be
improved by increasing transmitter
power because reverberation noise is
directly proportional to the power in
the transmitted wave
 Reverberation Noise
• Reverberation noise increases with
range because the noise is at the
same frequency as the transmitted
wave.
• Further more reverberation noise
increases with range because of
increasing beamwidth
 Reverberation Noise
• The area covered by the wavefront
progressively increases causing a
larger area from which back
scattering will occur.
• This means that reverberation noise
does not decrease in amplitude as
rapidly as the transmitted signal.
 Reverberation Noise
• Reverberation noise does not
decrease in amplitude as rapidly as
the transmitted signal.
• Therefore reverberation noise
amplitude will exceed the signal
noise amplitude.
 Interpretation of Sounding
False Bottom Echoes. Second Trace Echoes
• - Echoes, which are received at a properly adjusted sounder, until after the stylus
has completed one or more passes across the paper and the next pulse have been,
transmitted cause false readings.
e.g: If one revn - 1600 m, depth shown 50 m, it could be 50 or 1650 or even 3250 metres.. After switching off, on the switch
and then count the number of times the stylus crosses the paper before the echo re-appears.
Reflection echoes
• a) Double Echoes
- Echoes received after reflection from the seabed, but which the hull or the
sea surface back to the bottom and then reflects thence to the transducer. They
produce a second weaker echo at approximately double the correct depth. It will
fade out if sensitivity is reduced (may be received up to several hundreds metres).
•
b) Multiple Echoes
- Echoes received after being reflected several times between the seabed and
the surface or the ship's bottom before the energy is lost. It causes equally spaced
echoes on the trace. Reduce sensitivity to fade out. Switch on to first phase and
then phase deeper to locate first echo.
• c) Variable Echoes
- These are varying reflecting surfaces on the seabed. In general hard sand,
coral, chalk and rock are good reflectors and thick mud is a poor reflector. Stepped
formation of rock result in side Echoes from an object not immediately below the
vessel but whose slant depth is less than the depth of water.
• d) Electrical faults, or man made noises.
Other False Echoes

These do not normally obscure the bottom echo and may be caused by:
• Shoals of fish
• Layers of water of differing sounding velocities (salinity etc.)
• The deep scattering layer, which is a layer or set of layers, in the
• ocean, believed to consist of plankton and which attenuate,
scatter and reflect sound pulses. They lie between about 300-450
metres below the surface by day, and near the surface between
sunset and sunrise (by day, it is more pronounced when the sky is
clear, than when overcast).
• Kelp or weed.
• Turbulence from the interaction of tidal streams or eddies with
solid particles in suspension.
SPEED ERROR
• The speed of the recorder motor must be
proportional to the velocity of sound in
seawater and the velocity is known to vary.
• The recorder motor running at an incorrect
speed causes the speed error.
• If the motor speed is too fast, it will record a
greater depth and if it is too slow than a
lesser depth.
 Ranging

• In echo sounder the stylus is moving with

certain constant speed and transmission
takes place when the stylus passes the zero
mark.
• When the higher range is selected the speed
of the stylus is reduced as stylus has to paper
for the longer duration.
• This system is called the ranging.
• Scales used e.g; 0 – 100, 0 – 200, 0 - 300
 PHASING
• In phasing the speed of the stylus motor
remains constant.In stead of changing the
speed of thestylus,the transmission point is
advanced.
• The sensors are positioned around the
stylus belt.The magnet generates the pulse
when it passes the sensors which in turns
activate the transmitter.
• Range scales changed 0 -100,100 – 200, 200 –
300 or 0 -120, 60 – 180, 120 - 240
• Phasing:
Phasing is a method used in echo sounder to
determine depth of the sea bottom. In this method the
speed of the stylus is kept constant and the range scale
is changed from 0-100 mtrs , 100-200 mtrs , 200-300
mtrs and so on. It is important that the echo sounder
range changed and regularly checked.
Ranging:
Ranging is technique were the scale of the echo
sounder is kept constant and the stylus is varied
according to the depth scale chose. E.g.- 0-100, 0-200,
0-300 mtrs ans so on
 Modern Echo sounders
• While many make/models of
type approved echo sounders
are available, some of the
popular brands are shown as
follows
Various Models of Modern
Echo sounders

Supernet 700
CVS - 126
GDS 101
CVS 841C/ 841 P
4620
 THANK YOU
•

• Any Questions ?