AC DRIVE BASICS

MOTOR
OUTPUT

LINE INPUT

All AC Drives convert “fixed” voltage and frequency into “variable” voltage
and frequency, to run 3-phase induction motors.
Types of AC Drives
In today’s marketplace, there are 3 basic AC
Drive categories:
• Open loop “Volts / Hz” Drives V/Hz

SENSOR-
• Open loop “Sensorless Vector” Drives LESS
VECTOR

FLUX
• Closed loop “Flux Vector” Drives VECTOR
All are Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM)
Some manufacturers offer 2-in-1 & 3-in-1 Drives,
combining these attributes.
Open loop “Volts / Hz” Drives

V 460 Motor Nameplate V/Hz

o
l 230
t
s
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM*
(Base) *( 4-pole motor)
• Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency
• No compensation for motor & load dynamics
• Poor shock load response characteristics
 Sensorless & Flux Vector Drives

V 460 Motor Nameplate V/Hz

o
l 230
t
s
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM*
(Base) *( 4-pole motor)

• Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency, with dynamic self-adjustments

• V/Hz compensation for motor & load dynamics
• Excellent shock load response characteristics & high starting torque
 AC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed
Torque
100
%
T & HP HP
50

0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM

• Motor Torque is constant to base speed

• HP varies proportionally to speed
 Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverter
Basic Power Circuit
AC to DC DC to AC
DC Filter
Rectifier Inverter
AC
Output
AC DC
Bus IGBTs M
Input
Caps

All PWM inverters (V/Hz, Vector & Sensorless Vector) share similar power circuit
topologies.
AC is converted to DC, filtered, and inverted to variable frequency, variable
voltage AC.
PWM Power Circuit:
AC to DC Converter Section
AC to DC
DC Filter
Rectifier

AC DC +
Input Bus
Caps
-
Input Reactor
(option)
DC Reactor
The AC input is rectified and filtered into fixed-voltage DC
• Certain manufacturer’s units contain an integral DC reactor (choke)
as part of the DC filter.
• Adding an external AC input reactor will yield similar benefits.
• Both reduce harmonics, smooth and lower peak current.
Power Switches
The IGBT: (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
An IGBT is a hybrid between a MOSFET and a Bi-polar Darlington Transistor.

COLLECTOR

GATE
= SWITCH

EMITTER

• An IGBT can switch from “OFF” to “ON” in less than a microsecond.

• Amplified logic signals drive the high-impedance GATE.

Application Issues:
• A 1 microsecond state-change will generate a 1 MHz RF pulse.
• Dv/dt (rapid voltage changes) can stress motor insulation systems.
PWM Power Circuit:
DC to AC Inverter Section
DC to AC Vu-v
DC Filter
Inverter
AC
Output
+
U
IGBTs M
V
- W

Imotor

IGBT Firing
Signals

An IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a high-speed power semiconductor switch.

IGBTs are pulse-width modulated with a specific firing pattern, chopping the DC voltage into 3-
phase AC voltage of the proper frequency and voltage.
The resulting motor current is near-sinusoidal, due to motor inductance.
IGBT Switching Issues

CONDITION RESULT SOLUTION

Nuisance trips from
Controller-to-motor Output reactor installed
capacitive coupling to
lead length > 125’ near controller
ground
Nuisance trips; Output reactor;
Reflected (standing) Motor insulation damage Improved motor
wave phenomena from voltage doubling insulation
Carrier frequency in Higher carrier or
Motor acoustic noise
2 to10Khz range “quiet” algorithm
High dV/dT from fast Motor insulation damage Improved motor
switching from voltage doubling insulation

R.F. & RFI/EMI input filter;

Electromagnetic Interference with shielded motor cable;
interference other equipment; separate ground
telecommunications conductor
Basic V/HZ Control Circuit:
Input, Feedback and Control Signals

Motor current &

DC Bus current &
voltage feedback
voltage feedback f
IGBT Firing
Signals
Operator
Interface
PWM
AC MOTOR DRIVE
0.75
KW
HEALTH
200 V

S
E
LO
CA REF
L
v 1.3

microprocessor
EQ

Speed reference PROG

F
L
R controller
JOG
W
RE
D
V
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET
Flux Vector Control Elements
Input, Feedback and Control Signals

Encoder Feedback

Motor current &

DC Bus voltage
voltage feedback
feedback IGBT Gating
Man- Signals
machine
Interface PWM
0.75
AC MOTOR DRIVE
200 V v 1.3
microprocessor
controller with
KW
HEALTH LO

Speed and / or S
E
EQ
CA REF
L
PROG

Torque reference
Vector algorithm
M L
R

F
JOG
W
RE
D
V
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET
 AC VECTOR CONTROL LOOPS

AC Vector Drive
Encoder
Speed Loop Torque Loop
Speed Error Torque Ref.
Speed Reference
Speed Torque PWM
Regulator Regulator
Torque Reference
Firing
Freq. & Voltage
Reference
Actual Torque

Torque
Calculator
Frequency Feedback

Speed Feedback
 Typical AC Induction Motor
Speed / Torque Curve
“Across-the-line” operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA ‘B’ motor
Breakdown point: Maximum
225 torque motor can produce
before locking rotor

Starting Torque

%T 175 Pull-Up Torque Full load operating point (100%

current & torque)

150 1750 RPM (nameplate)

100

Synchronous “no-load” speed

1800 RPM

Speed (50 rpm)

SLIP
 Typical AC Induction Motor
Current & Torque Curves
“Across-the-line” operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA ‘B’ motor
650 Starting (inrush) current

400 Breakdown current:

maximum level when motor
locks rotor (stalls)

225

%T 175
%I
150 Linear range: 40-150% load
100 (operating range in which current is
proportional to torque)

Speed
AC Motor Speed / Torque Curve family
on Inverter Power
225 Motor base speed:
1750 RPM

Peak Inverter Torque

%T 175 (150 -200%)

150

100 100% load torque

operating line

Slip (50 rpm) Slip (50 rpm)

Speed
At any applied Frequency, an induction motor will slip a fixed RPM at rated load.
AC MOTOR FORMULA
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED VOLTS / HERTZ
120 x Frequency
SYNC RPM = # of Poles Motor Line Volts
V/Hz =
Motor Frequency
Example: 4-pole motor
SYNC RPM = 120 x 60 / 4poles = 1800 RPM
Example: 460 V, 60 Hz motor
V/Hz = 460/60 = 7.66 V/Hz

MOTOR SLIP
VOLTS FREQUENCY V/Hz
SYNC RPM - FULL LOAD RPM
%SLIP = X 100 460 60 7.66
SYNC RPM

Example: 1750 RPM motor 345 45 7.66

% Slip = (1800 - 1750) / 1800 x 100 = 3% Slip 230 30 7.66
115 15 7.66
7.66 1 7.66
AC MOTOR SIZE
Frame size is directly related to base RPM,
for a given Horsepower
Example: 15 HP motors of different base speeds

Base RPM 3600 (2-pole) 1800 (4-pole) 1200 (6-pole)

Frame Size 215 254 284

Torque 22.5 lb-ft 45 lb-ft 67.5 lb-ft

Amps 18.5 18.7 19.3

How Slip Compensation
improves speed regulation
Example: Motor under load at 30 Hz
BEFORE AFTER
30 Hz curve New 31.7 Hz
175 curve
175 Full load 30 Hz
% operating point (100% % 900 RPM
150 current & torque) 150
T 850 RPM
T
100 100
Sync. or “no-load”
30 Hz speed
950 RPM
900 RPM

Speed Slip (50 rpm) Speed Slip (50 rpm)

A motor will lose 50 rpm under By sensing current and other

full load with 30 Hz applied variables, SLIP COMP will apply
frequency, slipping from 900 to 31.7 Hz to the motor, restoring
850 RPM. the speed to 900 RPM.
Induction Motor Advantages

• Low cost (compared with DC)

• Wide availability
• Low maintenance - no brushes or commutator
• Rugged design - can be used in harsh environments
• Low inertia rotor designs
• High electrical efficiency
• Wide speed ranges
• No separately-powered field windings
• Good open-loop performance
Elements of an Induction Motor:
The Rotor
No direct electrical connections are made to the rotor. All forces are
magnetically induced by the stator, via the air gap.

Rotor Bar Current

Cast aluminum
rotor bars
Carry induced current
(skewed bars shown)

Cast aluminum
Laminations of
end rings
high-silicon
Electrically joins rotor
bars at both motor ends content steel
Low-eddy current loss
magnetic medium
Elements of an Induction Motor:
The Stator
Stator Core
Lamination stack
of notched steel
plates
Elements of an Induction Motor:
Stator Windings (4-pole)

Steel Laminations

Slots
wye or delta
connection types

Stator Windings
Elements of an Induction Motor:
The Stator (4-pole)
t

Rotating
magnetic field

The stator induces magnetic lines of

flux across the air gap, into the rotor
Induction Motor Slip

SLIP = (ws - wr ) / ws

w stator

w
• Motor slip is proportional to load
torque.
rotor • Stator speed is known by frequency
• Rotor speed is measured with an
encoder (Vector).
• Rotor speed can be approximated,
knowing motor and bus current
(Sensorless Vector algorithm)
Rotor Magnetic Field Dynamics:
SLIP creates TORQUE
Magnetic Flux When rotor speed is near stator speed (light load),
Lines few stator flux lines are cut . Rotor bar current and
slip frequency are low.
Magnetic Flux Magnetic Flux
Lines Lines

Light Load Heavy Load

As the rotor slips, rotor bar current slip frequency

increases, resulting in greater rotor field strength
(more torque).
Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit
Air
Gap
Stator Rotor
Stator Leakage Rotor
Resistance Reactance Reactance

R1 XLR XR

V XM RLOAD = R / Slip*
2
Magnetizing *(R2 is rotor bar resistance)
Reactance

Although there is no physical connection between rotor and stator, the

induced field causes the motor model to behave as if there is.
Motor Current Vectors

Total Current is the Vector sum of

Magnetizing and Torque-producing
Magnetizing
current, which are at a right angle
Current
to each other.
Torque-Producing Current

Stator Rotor
Air
Gap Torque
Stator Leakage Rotor
Resistance Reactance Reactance Current

R1 XLR
XR
Total Current
Magnetizing XM RLOAD
Current
 Motor Current Vectors

LIGHT • High % of total current is “magnetizing” current

Magnetizing
Current LOAD • Magnetizing current is reactive (low p.f.)
• Measured (total) motor current is not a good
Torque- indicator of load level.
Producing
Current
• Most of total current is
MEDIUM torque-producing
LOAD
Magnetizing • Motors run at high
Current & power factor

Torque-Producing Current HEAVY • Total motor current is

LOAD proportional to load level.

Magnetizing
Current

Torque-Producing Current
Autotuning on Sensorless Vector Drives
FACT: Most motor electrical parameters are
difficult to obtain from the manufacturer.
ROTOR RESISTANCE
ROTOR REACTANCE
MAGNETIZING CURRENT
STATOR RESISTANCE
LEAKAGE REACTANCE
?????
Not typically found on motor nameplate

A Sensorless Vector AUTOTUNE function makes the job easy:

1. Enter nameplate motor parameters (base speed, full load amps, voltage,
frequency, power factor).

2. Run the ‘AUTOTUNE ‘ function. The controller will pulse the motor &
determine approximate motor electrical characteristics for SENSORLESS
VECTOR Operation.

3. The S-V algorithm can now compute torque- and magnetizing current
vectors for more precise motor control.
Facts about Induction Motors

Most AC motors are designed to be used in fixed speed

(across-the-line) operation.
• Rotor bar design, cooling impellers, insulation systems have been
designed for 60 Hz sine-wave power.
• When operated on an inverter, performance and reliability may be
compromised:
» Insulation systems may break down from stresses of IGBT PWM
power.
» Cooling efficiency from shaft-driven fan will limit low speed range
» Motor harmonics will reduce Service Factor rating.
» Peak running torque is less than optimum.
Inverter-Duty Induction Motors
Many motor manufacturers have introduced lines of motors they call
“Inverter Duty” or “Vector Duty”. Features and characteristics vary between
manufacturers.
Typical features found on Inverter-Duty Motors
• High Dielectric strength wire insulation - Thermal-ezeTM (one brand)
resists pin-hole punctures caused by IGBT dV/dT switching stresses.
• Better Cooling - Efficient shaft-fan designs, constant-speed fans, and
overframing.
• Optimized rotor design - Bar profile designs suited for inverter, not line-
start duty.
• Tach-mounting provisions - Easy, non-drive end mounting of encoders
for Vector Duty operation.
• Wider speed ranges - Designs for above-base speed operation and
custom V / Hz ratios
AC Induction Motors
Common Rotor Bar Shapes & Effects
All have nearly the same performance at full load
At locked rotor...
• Low resistance ACROSS-THE-LINE OPERATION
• Low reactance
• High amps Best for
• Average torque Inverter

TORQUE & AMPS

• High resistance
• Average reactance
• Average amps
• Average torque

• High resistance
• High reactance
• Low amps
• Low torque
SPEED
 AC Induction Motors
Effecting Base Speed through Volts / Hz Design
Motors on inverters don’t have to be wound for “60 Hz”
• Optimal power delivery occurs if voltage peaks at base speed
• Lowest amps occur at peak voltage .
• Drive price / component cost is related to amps.

Example of a 4-pole “550 RPM” base speed motor:

Stator is wound for 460V @ 20 Hz
V/Hz = 460/20 = 23
3:1 CONSTANT HP
460
NAMEPLATE
BASE SPEED

VOLTS

0 20 40 60 Hz
600 1200 1800 RPM (sync.)
 Motor Operation above Base Speed
Motor base speed: 1750 RPM (4-pole)

225 60 Hz
curve

% 175
T 150 120 Hz
Base curve
100
Peak Inverter Torque
(150 -200% current)

50 100% current
operating line

1800 3600

Speed Slip (50 rpm) Slip (50 rpm)

• Above base speed, continuous torque declines to 50% at 2 x base.

• Peak Inverter (overload) torque declines even more rapidly.
• Motor slip increases, for a given torque level.
 Motor Operation above Base Speed
Constant Voltage
460

“Field Weakened Range”

Torque a V/Hz
Frequency increases
V
above base speed, but
voltage levels off.
The result is increased
speed with weakened
60 120 torque, or constant HP
Hz operation.
Above 2:1 , motor
Constant Torque Constant Horsepower torque drops sharply
100
& operation is not
%T recommended.
& HP
50

60 120
Hz
AC V/Hz Drives
Pro’s & Con’s
Advantages
• Simple, “look-up table” control of
voltage and frequency
• Good speed regulation (1-3%)
• No motor speed feedback needed
• Multi-motor capability
Limitations
• Low dynamic performance on
sudden load changes
• Limited starting torque
• Lacks torque reference capability
• Overload limited to 150%

Best for General Purpose & Variable Torque

Applications:
• Centrifugal Pumps & Fans
• Conveyors
• Mixers & Agitators
• Other light-duty non-dynamic loads
AC Sensorless Vector Drives
Pro’s & Con’s
Advantages Limitations
• High starting torque capability (150% • Speed regulation may fall short in
@ 1 Hz) certain high performance applications
• Improved speed regulation (< 1%) • Lacks zero-speed holding capability
• No motor speed feedback needed • Multi-motor usage defaults to V/Hz
operation
• Self-tuning to motor
• Torque control in excess of 2 X base
• Separate speed and torque reference
speed may be difficult
inputs
Suitable for all General Purpose, Variable Torque and
moderate to high performance applications
• Extruders
• Winders and unwind stands
• Process lines
AC Closed-Loop Vector
Pro’s & Con’s
Advantages
• Ultra-high torque and speed loop
performance & response
• Excellent speed regulation to .01%
• Full torque to zero speed
Limitations
• Requires encoder feedback
• Single motor operation only
• May require premium vector motor for
full performance benefits

• Extra-wide speed range control • 4-quadrant (regenerative) operation

requires additional hardware

Best for High Performance Applications:

• Converting applications
• Spindles & Lathes
• Extruders
• Other historically DC-applications
 Variable Torque Applications:
Centrifugal Pumps & Fans
100% T = K x (RPM)2
Flow, Torque & Horsepower

80% HP = K x (RPM)3

• Load varies with the square of

the speed
• HP varies with the cube of the
speed
50%
• Ideally suited for AC Drives
• Energy savings benefits: only
50% power required at 80% flow
• AC Drives replace inefficient
dampers, guide vanes and valves

80% 100%
Speed
 Variable Torque Applications:
Centrifugal Fan Energy Savings
100%
Power Consumption

Throttling air volume

mechanically with
dampers or inlet guide
50%
vanes is an inefficient
control method.

100%
Flow
 Variable Torque Applications:
Centrifugal Pumps & Fans
100%

Load Since load torque diminishes rapidly below

Torque base speed, the Drive always appears lightly
loaded.

Base
RPM
100%
Most drive controllers have a special
“variable torque” V/Hz profile selection that
further cuts down on magnetizing current at
Volts light loads. Since magnetizing current is
purely reactive, motor losses are reduced .

60
Hz
 Regenerative Operation of AC Motors
Example: 1750 RPM motor on 60 Hz power

Current
LOAD TORQUE & CURRENT

+100% Synchronous Speed

Motoring 1800 RPM
SPEED
1750 1850
Regenerating
-100%

Regen Breakdown
4-Quadrant Operation of AC Motors
on Inverter Power
Clockwise
TORQUE

REVERSE FORWARD
REGENERATING MOTORING
- RPM + RPM

REVERSE FORWARD
MOTORING REGENERATING

Counter-
Clockwise
TORQUE
Conditions for Regenerating
on an AC Motor
AC Motors regenerate when pulled faster than their
sync speed at the applied frequency.

At 60 Hz, if a motor is pulled faster than 1800 RPM*,

the motor will behave as an induction generator.

Regeneration conditions:
• Overhauling loads
• Fast deceleration of high inertial loads
• Stopping on a timed-ramp
• Cyclic loads or eccentric shaft loading
* 1750 RPM base

PULL
speed at 60 Hz
ROTATION

WEIGHT
 AC Drive Regeneration

Energy Flow: ONE - WAY TWO - WAY

AC DC +
Bus IGBTs M
Input _
Caps

• Current flows back into the DC bus, via the IGBT switching & back diodes.
• AC Drive front-end rectifier is unidirectional; energy cannot flow back into the AC
line.
• Some returned energy is dissipated in losses in the capacitors, switches, and
motor windings (10-15%).
• Excessive regeneration can cause problems, such as DC Bus Overvoltage.
 Dynamic Braking on AC Drives

V DC Feedback

DBR
AC DC +
Input Bus
_ M
Caps

SIGNAL
DB is NOT ACTIVE when:
DB is ACTIVE when:
DYNAMIC • Decelerating a frictional load
• Motor has an overhauling load
BRAKING • Stopping in coast-to-rest mode
• Fast decel of high-inertial load
CONTROL • Drive is disabled or if power
• Stopping in ramp-to-rest mode
is removed

DYNAMIC BRAKING is typically an option for AC Drives

A seventh IGBT, integrally mounted, is modulated when DC Bus voltage is excessive.
Resistor Grids (external on ratings 5 HP & above) dissipate the excess energy.
DB is duty-cycle limited to a set number of stopping operations
 Dynamic Braking on AC Drives:
Application Considerations

DB is not failsafe: if the drive faults or power is removed, DB will not

function.

DB only operates when the drive is running: in coast-rest or stand-by,

DB is inactive.

DB should not be used in EMERGENCY STOPPING: the drive will

continue on a timed ramp, producing torque the entire time.

DB is suitable for intermittent operation only: other regenerative

solutions exist for long-term overhauling loads
Application of AC Drives on a
Common DC Bus
+

M
 AC Drives on a Common DC Bus:
Theory of Operation
AC
DRIVE
+ -
REGEN

AC
DRIVE
NET
As individual drives
POWER MOTORING
regenerate, the
returned energy is re-
AC distributed to
Net power usage DRIVE motoring drives via
is minimal, due the common DC bus.
to the efficient REGEN
use of returned
energy. AC
DRIVE

MOTORING
AC Drives on a Common DC Bus:
Typical Connection Diagram

THERMAL- MAG
BREAKER

INPUT LINE
REACTOR

AC AC AC
DRIVE DRIVE DRIVE

SEMICONDUCTOR
FUSES

INTERLOCKED
DC CONTACTOR
Line Regenerative AC Drives
BI-DIRECTIONAL POWER FLOW

V DC Feedback
LINE M LOAD

IGBT Firing IGBT Firing

Signals Signals
CONVERTER INVERTER

PWM
microprocessor
controller
• Two sets of 6 - IGBT bridges
• Gating control for both sets
• Converter IGBTs modulate on when bus voltage is excessive.
• More complex regulator design
• More conducted noise to power line
Cost of drive is 1.8 times standard non-regen AC Drive
Multi-motor Applications
Motor amps must total less than
controller amp capability
• Each motor must have its own overload
• Drive must be in the “V/Hz” control mode AC DRIVE
(V/Hz mode)
• Motor speeds will be within slip-speed OVERLOAD CONTACTS
range, with respect to each other. 30 HP
38 Amps
• Interlock output contactors to drive run
logic, when used.

2 hp 3 hp 10 hp 2 hp 3 hp 5 hp
2.8 amps 3.9 amps 12 amps 2.8 amps 3.9 amps 7.2 amps

Total HP = 25
Total Amps = 32.6
Application of Contactor
Bypass on AC Drives MAIN CB
Provides back-up, across-the-line
operation of motor
• Single-speed operation on line only
(must have mechanical control in place)
INVERTER
• Motor overloads are mandatory. DISCONNECT

• Contactors are interlocked to prevent

inverter back-feed. AC
• Popular in HVAC / VT applications. DRIVE

• Not recommended on “inverter duty

only” motors (high inrush current). INVERTER
BYPASS
CONTACTOR
OFF CONTACTOR

INVERTER BYPASS

MOTOR
OVERLOAD

TYPICAL 3-POSITION
SELECTOR SWITCH
AC Drives and Power Factor

Motor P.F. = .70

AC INPUT P.F. = .96
(Light Load)

REACTIVE
FLOW

AC
Input M

AC Drives inherently correct motor Power Factor

• Reactive current bi-directionally flows between the inductive motor and bus capacitors.
• Input PF has no relationship to motor PF.
• Since input current is in-phase with voltage, input displacement PF is always near unity.
Never use power factor correction capacitors with AC Drives!!!
 DC DRIVE BASICS

A1
Armature
A2

F1
Field
F2

LINE INPUT MOTOR OUTPUT

DC Drives convert AC line voltage into variable DC voltage with an SCR

phase-controlled bridge rectifier, to power the DC motor ARMATURE. A
separate field supply provides the motor with DC FIELD excitation.
 Inside the DC Motor
(Shunt Field Design)

The commutator &

brushes keep armature
F1 flux in a fixed position
relative to the field,
N which guarantees the
torque force is always
F2 perpendicular to field
magnetization.

A1

A2
S
Typical DC Motor Armature
Current & Torque Curves

200

NO LOAD
100 MOTORING
Armature current is
%T RPM directly proportional to
0
% IDC torque throughout the
loading range.
-100 REGENERATING

-200
DC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed
Motor nameplate: 250 / 1000 RPM

FULL FIELD FIELD WEAKENED RANGE

% 4:1
TORQUE & HORSEPOWER

CONSTANT TORQUE CONSTANT HORSEPOWER

100

75

TORQUE @ 100% ARMATURE AMPS

50 2 : 1 FIELD
WEAKENING

3 : 1 FIELD WEAKENING
25

4 : 1 FIELD WEAKENING

250 500 750 1000

Base Speed Max.Speed

SPEED (RPM)
Power Switches
The SCR: (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
a.k.a. - “Thyristor”

ANODE CATHODE

-
TRIGGER
GATE +

• Extremely robust solid-state switch / 40+ year proven track record

• Key element in DC Drive power circuit
• Simple pulse gating turns on current flow
• Device has self-turn-off when reverse biased
• Stud-mount, hockey-puck and encapsulated 2-, 4- and 6-pack types
available in certain sizes and ratings.
Application Issues: AC Line Notching
on DC Drives

AC
Input

Commutation notches are caused by the

transfer of current from one SCR to another.
The notches can cause misfiring on drives
V ph-ph common to the same power line.

Solution: Installation of a small (25-50 uH range), 3-phase reactor on each

DC controller will prevent cross-talk and other related problems.
Elements of a DC Drive:
Non-regenerative type A1

F1
AC
Input
Tachometer
F2 Feedback
(closed-loop)

Field
Control
A2
SCR Firing Signals Motor voltage
feedback
Signals

Line current
feedback
Microprocessor
0.75
KW
HEALTH
AC MOTOR DRIVE
200 V

S
LO
CA REF
v 1.3
controller
Speed or Torque E
EQ
L
PROG

Reference M L
R

F
JOG
W
RE
D
V
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET

Operator
Interface
Elements of a DC Drive:
Regenerative type A1
AC R
F R F R F
Input
F1

Tachometer
Feedback
R R R F2
F F F (closed-loop)

Field A2
Control
SCR Firing Signals Signals Motor voltage
FWD/MOT REGEN/REV feedback

Line current
feedback

AC MOTOR DRIVE
Microprocessor
controller
0.75 200 V v 1.3
KW

Speed or Torque HEALTH

S
E
EQ
LO
CA REF
L
PROG

Reference M L
R

F
JOG
W
RE
D
V
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET

Operator
Interface
 Dynamic Braking on DC Drives
M

A1
M

Braking Power
F1

DBR
F2
A2
time
M
• Dynamic Braking Resistors are shunted across the motor armature in a STOP or E-
STOP mode.
• Motor counter-EMF (back voltage from motor, acting as generator) appears across
resistor grids.
• Voltage diminishes as resistors dissipate energy.
• Braking Power diminishes exponentially with motor slowdown: P = V2/R

Not failsafe: DB will not function if field supply is absent (i.e. - if power is lost)
DC Regenerative Drives vs.
DC Dynamic Braking

• DC regen drives provide constant torque deceleration and stopping.

• DC dynamic braking power diminishes with speed reduction.
• Both require full field power / neither will work in power outage.
• DC regen requires drive to be fully operational (no faults)
• DB can be used in conjunction with a regen drive, for certain stopping
conditions
• DC regen added benefits include full 4-quadrant torque control.
• DB may require an additional contactor, if the manufacturer uses an
AC input contactor.
DC DRIVE MARKET
MARKETPLACE FOR THE
DC THYRISTOR DRIVE

• Most widely used drive in heavy industry

• Account for 40% of total variable speed drive
market (much higher percentage in process
industries).
• Estimate 0 - 5 % growth / annually to 2000
• Very established mature product with
continuing development.
AC DRIVE MARKET
MARKETPLACE FOR THE
V/Hz AC PWM DRIVE

 Accounts for 60% of total variable speed drive

market (much lower percentage in process
industries)
 Estimated 5 - 10% growth / annual to 2000
 Mature product but due to limited performance
used generally only on peripheral rather than
process drives.
AC VECTOR DRIVE MARKET
MARKETPLACE FOR THE
AC FLUX VECTOR DRIVE

 Introduced during last eight years

 “Sensorless” introduced during last three years
 Growing use in most process industries (very strong
growth in elevators & hoists etc)
 Only AC drives currently available with similar or
equivalent performance to DC
Measuring Bandwidth Response

AC Vector Drive
Encoder
“TEST” Speed Loop Torque Loop
Speed Error Torque Ref.

Speed Torque PWM

Speed Ref
Regulator Regulator
1.0 Firing
Freq. & Voltage
Reference
Actual Torque
45 degrees
.7071
Torque
Calculator
Frequency Feedback
Speed Feedback

Speed Feedback

• A sine-wave signal generator is applied to the reference input

• Feedback is monitored as reference frequency is increased.
• When feedback lags reference by 45 degrees, and amplitude is reduced to 71%
of the input signal, this is defined as the “BANDWIDTH RESPONSE”.
Drive Performance Comparison
Speed Speed Loop Torque Torque
Regulation Response Accuracy Response

DC open loop 2-3% .5 - 2 Hz 5 - 10% 10 - 20 Hz

DC closed loop .01 - 1% 10 - 20 Hz 2 - 5% 20 - 100 Hz
AC V/Hz 1 - 5% 1 - 2 Hz 10 - 20% 5 - 10 Hz
AC Sensorless Vector .1- .5% 15 - 25 Hz 2 - 10% 75 - 200 Hz
AC Flux Vector .01 -.05% 20 - 100 Hz .5 - 1% 200 - 1000 Hz

Performance varies widely, between drive manufacturers

• Speed regulation is dependent upon speed feedback device used.
• Open loop regulation is motor-dependent
• Response rates are rarely published & can be misleading.
Common Drive Formulas for AC & DC
TORQUE AND HORSEPOWER

For a 4-pole (1800 RPM) motor:

Torque x RPM
HP = Torque (lb-ft) = 3 x HP
5252
For a 6-pole (1200 RPM) motor:
HP x 5252 Torque (lb-ft) = 4.5 x HP
Torque =
RPM
For a 2-pole (3600 RPM) motor:
Torque (lb-ft) = 1.5 x HP

Accelerating / Decelerating an inertial load:

Wk2 x D RPM
Torque =
308 x D tsec
*(Wk2 is inertia in lb-ft2)
Wk2 x D RPM
D tsec =
308 x Torque
Common Electrical Formulas
for AC & DC Drives
AC line current and armature current (DC Drives)
IDC = IAC / .83
AC line voltage and DC bus voltage (AC Drives)
VDC = VL-L x 1.41
Horsepower and Kilowatts
HP = KW / .746

KW = HP x .746
Three phase Power
VL-L x I x 1.732 Pout
KVA = % Efficiency = X 100
Pin
1000
KVA = KW / P.F.
Power losses in AC & DC controllers
(5 - 100 HP; excluding motor; full speed & load)

DC: AC to DC

98% EFFICIENCY
SCR losses = 1%
Fixed losses = 500 -1000W
CONTROL
AC: & FANS

AC to DC
Cap losses = .5%
DC to AC
96% EFFICIENCY
SCR / Diode losses IGBT losses = 1.5%
= 1%

CONTROL & FANS Fixed losses = 800 -1500W

 Power Factor on AC and DC Drives

.96 On AC Drives, input displacement

AC power factor remains nearly
constant with speed & load.
.85

On DC Drives, power factor varies

directly with SCR phase-firing
POWER angle, peaking near .85 .
FACTOR
DC
Since power increases linearly
with speed, the effects of low
power factor at low speed are
.30
negligible.

20% 100%
SPEED
DC Drive Advantages over AC

• Simple Controller Design- only one power conversion stage, no

power storage elements.
• Higher Controller Efficiency- 98%+ electrically efficient
• Simple, 4-quadrant line regeneration - with 6 reverse SCRs
• Efficient, inherent Torque control - Field & Armature flux always
positioned optimally.
• Retrofit to existing DC motors - previously power by M-G set or
older drive types.
• Most cost-effective drive package above 100HP
• High Controller reliability - Low maintenance due to simple power
module design
…more DC Drive Advantages over AC
• Lower power line harmonic contribution - less than 50% of AC
• Smaller line reactors- less costly
• More compact controller size per equivalent HP
• More robust power semiconductors - SCRs have better overload
and peak voltage characteristics, vs. IGBTs.
• Low motor acoustical noise: no “carrier” noise.
• Fewer motor lead-length issues: no capacitive coupling, dV/dT or
standing wave problems.
• Easier troubleshooting & serviceability
AC Drive Advantages over DC
• Simple, low-maintenance motor - no brushes or commutator.
• High dynamic performance - low rotor inertia, compared with DC
armature.
• Motors are inexpensive & readily available
• Motors suitable for harsh, rugged environments : some explosion-
proof ratings available.
• Better open-loop speed regulation - with Sensorless Vector & slip
compensation.
• Higher torque response bandwidth - on Vector-type; not limited by
AC line frequency.
• More cost-effective drive package below 100HP
• Multi-motor & inherent load sharing on single controller
• Line-bypass option - permits single-speed motor operation during
controller maintenance
…more AC Drive Advantages over DC

• No separate motor field - no field loss sensing required

• Wider speed ranges - motors available through 6000 RPM & higher.
• Contactor-free dynamic braking - linear braking power to zero
speed.
• Retrofit onto existing single-speed AC applications
• Smaller motor frame sizes than equivalent DC.
• Longer power-dip ride-through capabilities
• Near unity power factor regardless of speed and load