CHAPTER 3

GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT
 Learning Objective
• What do evolution and species heredity
contribute to our understanding of universal
patterns of development?
 Species Heredity
• Genetic endowment
– What species members have in common
– Govern maturation and aging processes
• Examples in humans
– Two eyes, sexually mature at ages 12-14
• Evolved through natural selection
– Genes passed on which allow species to
adapt
 Evolution
• Evolution: Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
– Specie characteristics change over time
– New species can evolve from earlier ones
• Main arguments
– There is genetic variation in a species
– Natural selection
• Adaptive genes passed on more
frequently
 Kettlewell’s Moths
• An interaction
– Genetic variability (color of wings)
– Adaptation to a specific environment
(country vs.city)
• Survival
– Requires adaptation
• Adaptation
– Genetic variability
 Modern Evolutionary Perspectives
• What we do today was adaptive for our
ancestors
• Species heredity based on natural selection
• Genetic make-up gradually changes
• New or modified species arise
• Cultural evolution based on learning
– Better ways of adapting learned
– Shared through language
 Learning Objectives
• What are the basic workings of individual
heredity, including the contributions of genes,
chromosomes, the zygote, and the processes
of mitosis and meiosis?
• Note the difference between genotype and
phenotype.
 Individual Heredity – The Genetic Code
• Zygote: Union of sperm & ovum at conception
– Contains 23 pairs of chromosomes
• One pair from each parent
• Each pair influences a characteristic
• Chromosomes: thousands of genes
containing DNA
• Meiosis: process producing sperm, ova
• Mitosis: cell-division process creating all other
cells
– Throughout life
 The Human Genome Project
• Massive genome analysis projects
• 999/1000 human base chemicals: identical
• 1/1000 accounts for differences between us
• Humans/Chimps share 96% genetic material
• Gene variants evolved in recent centuries
– Adaptations to food sources, diseases,etc.
• Findings also useful to identify genes
associated with disease, drug treatments
 Genetic Uniqueness and Relatedness
• ID twins: zygote divides forms 2 individuals
• 64 trillion genetically unique babies per any
couple
– 2 chromosomes in sperm or ovum
– Males: XY, Females: XX
• Parent/Child: 50% related genetically
• Siblings: on average 50% related genetically
• Fraternal twins: 2 ova released, fertilized by 2
sperm
 Translation of the Genetic Code
• Genotype: genetic makeup a person inherits
• Phenotype: expressed traits of the person
• Genes: instructions for development
– Characteristics like eye color
• Regulator genes turn gene pairs on/off at
different times
– Turned on for adolescent growth spurt
– Turned off in adulthood
• Always influenced by environmental factors
also
 Learning Objectives

• How are traits passed from parents to

offspring?
• What is an example of how a child could
inherit a trait through each of the three
mechanisms described in the text?
 Mechanisms of Inheritance
• Single gene-pair inheritance
– Dominant gene = dominant trait
– Recessive genes
• Trait expressed if paired with a similar
gene (Homozygous)
• Trait not expressed if paired with
dissimilar gene (Heterozygous)
– Recessive traits: homozygous recessive
– Dominant traits: hetero or homozygous
gene pair
 Example: Sickle-Cell Disease
• About 9% affected in US
– Homozygous recessive
• Heterozygous are “carriers”
– Can transmit gene to offspring
– If both parents carriers: 25% chance
• Example of incomplete dominance
– Offspring may have sickling episodes
 Sex-Linked Inheritance
• Single genes located on sex chromosomes
• Actually X-linked
• Males - no counterpart on Y chromosome
– Only needs one to be color-blind
• Females - counterpart on 2 nd
X chromosome
– Usually for normal color-vision (dominant)
– Must inherit on both to be color-blind
• Also Hemophilia, Duchene MS, others
• X-Linked Inheritance
 Polygenic Inheritance
• For most important human characteristics
– Height, intelligence, temperament, etc.
• Trait influenced by multiple pairs of genes
• These traits are normally distributed
– I.e., found in the same proportion in all
populations
 Learning Objectives

• What methods are used to screen for genetic

abnormalities?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages
of using such techniques to test for prenatal
problems?
• What are some abnormalities that can
currently be detected with genetic screening?
 Mutations
• A change in gene structure/arrangement
• Produces a new phenotype
• More likely in sperm than in ova
• May be harmful or beneficial
• Can be inherited by offspring
 Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Errors in chromosome division during meiosis
– Too many or too few chromosomes result
– Most spontaneously aborted
• Down Syndrome: Trisomy 21
– Physical characteristics
– Mental retardation
– Related to age of both parents
– Often develop Alzheimer’s in middle age
• The rate of Down syndrome births increases steeply as the mother’s age increases.
 Sex chromosome Abnormalities
• Turner’s syndrome: 1/3000 females
– Single X chromosome: small, unable to
reproduce
• Klinefelter syndrome: 1/200 males
– XXY: Sterility, feminine traits
• Fragile X syndrome: one arm on X is fragile
– Usually males (sex-linked inheritance)
– Most common heredity cause of MR
 Genetic Diagnosis and Counseling
• Helps people understand and adapt
• Prenatal diagnosis: techniques include
– Amniocentisis, preimplantation genetic
diagnosis
• Human genome project yielded much info
• Eg., Huntington’s disease
– Deterioration of nervous system
– Single dominant gene
– One affected parent = 50% chance in
offspring
 Learning Objectives

• How do scientists study the contributions of

heredity and environment to behavioral
characteristics?
• Describe the logic of the methods, as well as
strengths and weaknesses of each method
• How can concordance rates help researchers
estimate the influences of heredity and
environment?
• How do genes, shared environment, and
nonshared environment contribute to
individual differences in traits?
 Behavioral Genetics
• Genetic/environmental cause of traits
• Heritibility estimates
• Experimental and selective breeding
– Tryon’s maze-bright rats
• Twin, adoption, family studies
– Reared together or apart
– Concordance rates
 Estimating Influences
• Genetic similarity
– Degree of trait similarity
• Shared environmental influence
– Living in the same home
• Non-shared environmental influences
– Unique experiences
 Molecular Genetics
• Analysis of genes and their effects
– May compare humans with other animals
• Eg. Alzheimer’s disease
– Most common form of old age dementia
– Twin studies show heritability
– Possible genetic links being tested
– Environmental factors also being tested
• High cholesterol, head injury
 Learning Objectives
• How do genes and environments contribute
to individual differences in intellectual
abilities, personality and temperament, and
psychological disorders?
• What do researchers mean when they talk
about the heritibility of traits?
• Which traits are more strongly heritable than
others?
 IQ: Accounting for Individual Differences

• Correlations highest in identical twins

– Genetic factors determine trait
• Correlations higher if twins reared together
– Environmental factors
– Non-shared experiences influential
• Identical twins more alike with age
 Temperament & Personality
• Temperament Correlations
– Identical twins = .50 to .60
– Fraternal twins = 0 (even reared together!)
• Personality Correlations Similar
– Shared environment unimportant
– Genetic inheritance important
– Non-shared experiences important for
differences
• Correlations between the traits of identical twins raised apart in Minnesota Twin Study.
 Psychological Disorders
• Schizophrenia concordance rates
– ID twins: 48%
– Fraternal twins: 17%
– Affected parent increases risk even if
adopted at birth
• Inherited predisposition
– Environmental factors (triggers)
– Prenatal exposure to infection suspected
 Learning Objectives

• What is an example that illustrates the

concept of a gene-environment interaction?
• What are three ways that genes and
environments correlate to influence
behavior?
• What are the major controversies
surrounding genetic research?
 Gene-Environment Interactions

• Based on correlations
• Eg., Sociable genes
– Passive interaction
• Create social home environment
– Evocative interaction
• Smiley baby gets more social stimulation
– Active interaction
• Shy child seeks solitary activities