EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

ALICIA Q. TABLIZO, PhD.

 SYLLABUS
I. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AS
A FIELD OF STUDY: A Tool for
Effective Teaching
a. Exploring educational psychology
b. Effective Teaching
c. Research in Educational
Psychology
II. COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
a. An Overview of Child
Development
b. Cognitive Development
c. Language Development
III. SOCIAL CONTEXTS AND
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 a. Contemporary Theories
b. Social Context of Development
c. Socioemotional Development
IV. INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
a. Intelligence
b. Learning and Thinking Styles
c. Personality and Temperament
V. SOCIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY
a. Culture and Ethnicity
b. Multicultural Education
c. Gender
VI. LEARNERS WHO ARE
EXCEPTIONAL
a. Children with Disabilities
b. Educational Issues Involving Children
with Disabilities
c. Children Who Are Gifted
VII. BEHAVIORAL and SOCIAL
APPROACHES
VIII. THE INFORMATION PROCESSING
APPROACH
IX. COMPLEX COGNITIVE
PROCESSES
X. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACHES
XI. PLANNING, INSTRUCTION and
TECHNOLOGY
XII. MOTIVATION, TEACHING and
LEARNING
XIII. MANAGING THE CLASSROOM
XIV. STANDARDIZED TESTS AND
TEACHING
XV. CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND
GRADING
 REFERENCES:
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. Anita Woolfolk (2007)
2. John Santrock( 2011)
3. Anselmo Lupdag (2007)
4. Gaudencio Aquino (1997)
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

a discipline bridging two fields, education
and psychology that primarily interested in
the application of psychological methods to
the study and practice of teaching and
learning.

 a branch of psychology that focuses on both

the discovery of principles of psychology and
their application to teaching-learning process
 Discipline concerned with teaching
and learning process

 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 Pioneers in the Early history of Educational
Psychology
1. WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910) lectures on
Talks to Teachers which he discussed the
application of psychology in educating
children.
- Emphasized the importance of observing
teaching and learning in classrooms for
improving education.
 One of his recommendations was to
start lessons at a point just beyond the
child’s level of knowledge to stretch the
child’s mind.

2. JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)-

established the first major educational
psychology laboratory in United States,
University of Chicago (1894)..later in
Columbia University
Important Ideas from Dewey:
1. He view the child as an active learner;
children learn best by doing
2. He view that education should focus on
the whole child and emphasize the
child’s adaptation to the environment.
Children should learn how to be
reflective problem solvers
3. He believed that all children deserve to
have a competent education
(socioeconomic/ethnic groups)
 E.L. THORNDIKE (1874-1949)-
focused on the assessment and
measurement and promoted the
scientific underpinnings of learning.
- He promoted the idea that
educational psychology must have a
scientific base and should focus
strongly on measurement
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN
THE PHILIPPINES

 Required in all education

curricula
 Was offered under the College of
Liberal Arts in UP (1910) under
the Dept. of Philosophy and
Psychology
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

 concerned with classroom teaching

and learning (traditional educational
psychology)
 revolutionized (at present), not
confined in the academe
 focused on the teaching-learning
process in formal and non-formal
education

SOURCES OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

 WESTERN TRADITION (ex. Theory of

developmental tasks which says that there
are tasks or behaviors that are expected of
a child at a particular grade or year level)
 INDIGENOUS PHILIPPINE
PSYCHOLOGY ( ex.
Pakikipagkapwa, diwa, etc)

 CURRENT RESEARCHES ( used

as mainstream in educational
psychology)
 USES OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 curriculum development-restructuring
of different curricula
 policy-making- formulation of
educational policies such as promotions
and admissions
 determination of methods of
teaching- individual differences
 determination of course content
 management of the educational
system- appointment/promotion of
teachers
 guidance purposes- individual
differences
 enhancement of community- school
relationship
 guidelines for classroom management
 production-selection of materials
appropriate for a grade-level
curriculum
 improvement of human relations in
school- fostering healthy
interpersonal relationship
 DIVERSITY AND EARLY
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 MAMIE and KENNETH CLARK-
African American psychologists who
conducted research on African
American children’s self-conceptions
and identity.
 KENNETH CLARK (1971)- first
American African president of
American Psychological Association
 GEORGE SANCHEZ- Latino
psychologist conducted research
showing that intelligence tests are
culturally biased against ethnic
minority children.
 LETA HOLLINGWORTH (1916)- first
individual to use the term “GIFTED” to
describe children who scored
exceptionally high on intelligence
tests
 THE BEHAVIORAL
APPROACH
 B.F. SKINNER- mental process proposed
by James and Dewey were not observable
and therefore could not be appropriate
subject matter for scientific study for
psychology
 He proposed PROGRAMMED LEARNING
(1954) which involved reinforcing student’s
behavior after each series of steps until a
student reached a learning goal.
 THE COGNITIVE
REVOLUTION
 BENJAMIN BLOOM (1950’s)- created
a taxonomy of cognitive skills that
included remembering,
comprehending, synthesizing, and
evaluating which he suggested
teachers should help students to
develop.
 TEACHING: ART AND
SCIENCE
 As SCIENCE, educational psychology
aims to provide you with research
knowledge that you can effectively
apply to teaching situations
 But your teaching still remain an ART
 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
 Because of the complexity of teaching
and individual variation among
students, effective teaching is not
“ONE SIZE FITS ALL”.
 A teacher must master a variety of
perspectives and strategies and be
flexible in their application.
 Success in teaching
requires:
 PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS
1. Subject-Matter Competence

2. Instructional Strategies

a. constructivist approach- a learner

centered approach to learning that
emphasizes the importance of individuals
actively constructing knowledge and
understanding with the guidance of teachers
 b. direct instruction approach- a
structured teacher-centered approach
characterized by teacher direction and
control, high teacher expectations for
students’ progress, maximum time of
students on academic tasks, efforts by
the teacher to keep negative effect to a
minimum.
3. Thinking Skills (critical thinking-
thinking reflectively and productively and
evaluating the evidence)
4. Goal Setting and instructional
planning
5. Developmentally Appropriate
Teaching Practices
6. Classroom Management Skills
7. Motivational Skills
8. Communication Skills
9. Paying More Than Lip Service to
Individual Variations
 Differentiated instruction-
recognizing individual variations in
students’ knowledge, readiness,
interests and other characteristics
then taking these differences into
account in planning curriculum and
engaging in instruction.
10. Working Effectively with Students
from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds
11. Assessment Knowledge Skills
12. Technological Skills
B. COMMITMENT, MOTIVATION AND
CARING
 STRATEGIES for BECOMING an
EFFECTIVE TEACHER
 Effective teaching requires teachers
to wear many different hats.
 Engage in perspective taking
 Stay committed and motivated
 Keep the list of characteristics of
effective teachers
 RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT

 Research is a valuable source of

information about teaching…

 RESEARCH METHODS
USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND
AND IMPROVE TEACHING

Educational psychologists design and

conduct different kinds of research studies.
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH- research/

studies that collect detailed information

about specific situations using
observation, survey, interviews,
recordings or combination of these
methods
  OBSERVATION- to employ scientific
observation which is highly systematic.
 Observation can be made in:
1. laboratory- controlled setting from which
many complex factors from the real world
have been removed
2. Naturalistic observation- behavior is
observed in the real world
3. Participant observation- the teacher-
researcher is actively involved as a
participant in the activity or setting
 INTERVIEWS and
QUESTIONNAIRES- sometimes
quickest and best way to get
information.
 STANDARDIZED TESTS- tests with
uniform procedures for administration
and scoring. They assess students’
aptitudes or skills in different domains
 CASE STUDY- an in-depth look at an
individual
 ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY-
descriptive approach that focuses on
life within a group and tries to
understand the meaning of events to
the people involved.
- In-depth description and interpretation
of behavior in an ethnic or cultural
group that includes direct involvement
with the participants
 FOCUS GROUPS- people are
interviewed in group setting , usually to
obtain information about a particular
topic or issue. Consists of 5-9 people
with facilitator who asks series of open-
ended questions
 PERSONAL JOURNAL AND DIARIES-
may used to document quantitative
aspects of their activities or qualitative
aspects of their lives
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH-
describes the strength of the relationship
of two variables/events or characteristics
1. Positive correlation

2. Negative Correlation
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH-

variables are manipulated and the

effects recorded.
Subject-people or animal
Variable- anything that can be measured
 GROUPS:
1. Experimental Group- the group whose
experience is manipulated in an experiment
2. Control Group- serves as baseline against
which the effects of the manipulated
VARIABLES:
1. Independent Variable- the manipulated,
influential, experimental factor in an experiment
2. Dependent Variable-the factor that is
measured in an experiment
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT- the assignment of
participants to experimental and control groups
by chance
 PROGRAM EVALUATION
RESEARCH- research designed to
make decisions about the
effectiveness of a particular program
 ACTION RESEARCH- Research
used to solve a specific classroom or
school problem, improve teaching
and other educational strategies, or
make decision at a specific level.
 TEACHER-as-RESEARCHER- also
called teacher-researcher, this concept
involves classroom teachers conducting
their own studies to improve their
teaching practice
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH- employs
numerical calculations in an effort to
discover information about a particular
topic
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH- does not
statistically analyzed the information
 MIXED METHOD- involves research that
blends diff. research designs or/methods
 METHODS OF RESEARCH IN EP
1. Interview

1.1 close-ended interview

1.2. open ended interview
2. Questionnaire
2.1. participant questionnaire
3. Historical method
4. Unobtrusive methods
5. Content Analysis- can be classified as
unobtrusive method
6. Psychological Testing
7. Indigenous Method
A. Researcher
7.1. pakapa-kapa- grouping
7.2. pagmamasid-exploratory
7.3 pakikiramdam- being sensitive
7.4 pagtatanong-tanong-approach
7.5 pagsubok- try-out
 7.6. pakikialam- concern for
students’ welfare
7.7 pakikilahok- imbibe the culture
7.8. pakikisangkot –active
involvement
B. Researcher and Participant
1. Pakikitungo- rapport

2. Pakikilahok- participate
3. pakikisalamuha- interaction with
4. Pakikibagay- in conformity
5. Pakikisama- interpersonal relations
6. Pakikipaglagayang loob-acceptance
7. Pakikisangkot- getting involved
with
 TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCDG.
TO PURPOSE
1. BASIC RESEARCH-discovery of
new knowledge without concern for
its use.
2. APPLIED RESEARCH- action
research; focus on solution to a
problem
 WHAT TO CONSIDER IN DATA
ANALYSIS
1. Objectives of the study
2. Methodology
3. Review of related literature
4. Duration of the study
5. Environmental conditions
surrounding the study
6. Language in research
 COGNITIVE and LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
 “Children are on a different plane. They
belong to a generation and way of feeling
properly their own”- George Santaya
(Spanish-born American philosopher)
 DEVELOPMENT-the pattern of biological,
cognitive. And socioemotional processes
that begins at conception through lifespan.
Involves growth and dying
 “Children are the legacy we leave for the
time we will not live to see”.-ARISTOTLE
 COGNITIVE PROCESSES- involves
changes in the child’s thinking,
intelligence and language.
 SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES-
involve changes in the child’s
relationship with other people, changes
in emotion and changes in personality
 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES- produce
changes in the child’s body and underlie
brain development
 PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT
 INFANCY- extends from birth to 18
months. Extreme dependence on
adults. Many activities are just
beginning such as language
development, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination and social
learning
 EARLY CHILDHOOD- (pre-school
years) extends from the end of infancy
to about 5 years. Children become more
self-sufficient, develop school readiness
skills, and spend many hours with
peers.
 MIDDLE and LATE CHILDHOOD-
(elementary school years)extends from
about 6 to 11 years of age. Children
master the fundamental skills of
reading, writing and math, achievement
becomes a more central theme, and
self-control increases. Interact with
 ADOLESCENCE- begins around 10 to
12 and ends around 18 to 21.
Adolescence starts with rapid physical
changes and development of sexual
functions. Adolescents intensely pursue
independence and seek their own
identity. Their thought becomes more
abstract, logical and idealistic.
 The interplay of cognitive, biological and
socioemotional produces the periods of
human development
  DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
1. Nature (heredity,etc)-Nurture(parenting)
Issue
2. Continuity-Discontinuity Issue- the issue
whether development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity-quanti) or
distinct stages (discontinuity-quali)
3. Early-Later Development Issue- the issue
of the degree to which early experiences
(especially infancy) or later experiences
are the key determinants of the child’s
development (early-critical or
sensitive/later-powerful)
DEVELOPMENT and EDUCATION

 Developmentally appropriate teaching

takes place at a level that is neither too
difficult and stressful nor too easy and
boring for the child’s developmental
level
 Recognize that their development and
ability are complex and children often do
not display the same competence
across different skills
 SPLINTERED DEVELOPMENT- the
circumstances in which development is
uneven across domains
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 PLASTICITY- the ability of the brain to
change and its development depends
on experience. In other words, what
children do can change the
development of their brain
 Second Long Quiz
1. Discuss the 3 issues surrounding
development
2. What do you think is the role of
education in addressing these issues
in development
3. Should a school encourage
exceptionally bright students to skip
grades or to enter college early?
  Identify what research methods is used in
the following situations. Prove your
answer:
1. The less you pay for a theater ticket, the
farther you are from the stage
2. How a student tries to learn specific
material
3. If teachers ignore students who are out of
their seats without permission and praise
students who are working hard at their
seats, will students spend more time
working at their desks?
4. Would assigning task roles in science
lead to more equitable participation of
boys and girls in the work?

HAPPY HOLIDAYS!!!
 MIDTERM PERIOD
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 PIAGET’s THEORY
 COGNITIVE PROCESS- how children construct

their knowledge of the world (Piaget,1896-1980)

1. Schemas- actions or mental representations that
organize knowledge . In Piaget’s theory, behavioral
schemas (physical activities) characterize infancy
and mental schemas (cognitive activities) develop in
childhood.
By the time we have reached adulthood, we have
constructed an enormous number of diverse schemas
2. Assimilation and Accommodation- to explain how
children use and adapt their schemas.
Assimilation- Occurs when people incorporate new
information to their existing schematic knowledge.
Ex: how might this 8-year old girl first attempt to use the
hammer and the nail, based on her pre-existing schematic
knowledge about these objects?
Accommodation- occurs when people adjust their
knowledge schemas to new information.

Ex: Handling the hammer and she swings too hard and the
nail bends, so she adjust the pressure of her strikes. This
adjustments reflect her ability to alter her conception of the
world.
3. Organization- Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated
behaviors into a higher- order, more smoothly functioning
cognitive system: the grouping or arranging of items into
categories.
Ex. A boy with only a vague idea about how to use a hammer
also may have a vague idea on how to use other tools. After
learning how to use each one, he relates these uses, organizing
his knowledge.
4. Equilibration and Stages of Development
Equilibration- a mechanism that Piaget proposed to
explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the
next.
Ex: if the child believes that the amount of liquid changes simply
because the liquid poured into a container with a different shape.
 PIAGET’s FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
1. The Sensorimotor Stage- lasts from birth to
about 2 years of age, in which infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating
sensory experiences (seeing, hearing,..) with motor
actions (reaching, touching). At the end of the
stage, they display far more complex
sensorimotor patterns.
2. The Preoperational Stage- lasts approximately
from 2-7 years of age, symbolic thought increases
but operational thought is not yet present.
 Two substages:
a. Symbolic function substage-(2-4 years); the
ability to represent an object not present
develops and symbolic thinking increases;
egocentrism is present.
Ex: Young children are not very concerned about
reality.
Egocentrism- inability to distinguish between
one’s own perspective and someone else
perspectives.
b. Intuitive thought substage- (4-7 years old)
Children begin to use primitive reasoning and
want to know the answer to all sorts of questions.
They seem so sure about their knowledge in this
substage but are unaware of how they know what
they know.
Ex: Young children’s limitation in reasoning ability is the
difficulty they have putting things into correct categories.
Many of these preoperational examples show a
characteristic thought called CENTRATION, which
involves focusing (centering)attention on one
characteristics to the exclusion of all others. It is
most present in preoperational children’s lack of
CONSERVATION, the idea that some characteristic
of an object stays the same even though the object
might change in appearance.
 According to Piaget, preoperational children also
cannot perform what is called OPERATIONS-
mental representation that are reversible.
Ex: 4+2= 6/ 6-2= 4
Strategies:
1. Allow children to experiment freely with
materials.
2. Ask children to make comparisons

3. Give children experience in ordering operations

4. Have children draw scenes with perspective.

5. Construct an inclined plane or hill.

6. Ask children to justify their answers when they

draw conclusions.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage- (7-11 years of
age). The child thinks operationally and logical
reasoning replaces intuitive thought but only in
concrete situations; classifying skills are present but
abstract problems present difficulties.
Learnings:
a. Seriation- a concrete operation that involves
ordering stimuli along some quantitative
dimension (such as length).
b. Transivity- the ability to reason and logically
combine relationships.
Ex: three sticks (A,B,C). A is longer than B; B is longer
than C. and A is the longest.
Strategies for working with Concrete Operational
Children:
1. Encourage students to discover concepts and
principles.
2. Involve children in operational tasks.
3. Plan activities in which students practice the
concept of ascending and descending
classification hierarchies.
4. Include activities that require conservation of
area, weight and displaced volume.
5. Continue to ask students to justify their
answers when they solve problems
4. The Formal Operational Stage- (11-15 years of age);
thought is more abstract, idealistic and logical.
 As formal operational thinkers, they think
more like scientists. They devise plans to solve
problems and systematically test solutions.
Paiget’s term hypothetical-deductive reasoning
embodies the concept that adolescents can
develop hypothesis (best hunches) to solve
problems and systematically reach (deduce) a
conclusion.
 Adolescent egocentrism- heightened self-
consciousness. It involves the desire to be
noticed, visible and “on stage”.
 Applying PIAGET’s THEORY to Children Education
1. Take constructivist approach. Children learn best by
making discoveries, reflecting on them, actively
involved in the learning process.
2. Facilitate rather than direct learning. Allow children
to learn by doing.
3. Consider the child’s knowledge and level of
thinking. Students do not come to class with empty
heads.
4. Promote the student’s intellectual health. Children
should not be pushed and pressured into achieving
too much too early in their development.
5. Turn classroom into a setting o f exploration and
discovery.
 LEV VYGOTSKY’s THEORY- children’s
cognitive development is shaped by the
cultural context in which they live.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)-
Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too
difficult for children to master alone but that can
be mastered with guidance and assistance from
adults or more-skilled children.
 The lower limit of the ZPD is the level of skill

reached by the child working independently.

 The upper limit is the level of additional

responsibility the child can accept with

assistance of an able instructor.
 Scaffolding- a technique that involves changing the
level of support for learning. A teacher or more-
advanced peer adjusts the amount of guidance to
fit the student’s current performance. Used to help
students attain the upper limit of ZPD.
Ex: when a student is learning a new task, the skilled
person may use direct instruction. As student’s
competence increases, less guidance is given.
 Language and Thought- Children use speech not

only for social communication but also help them

to solve tasks and monitor their behavior.
Private speech- use of language for self-regulation.
Ex. Talking aloud to themselves
Inner Speech- internalizing their egocentric speech
which becomes their thoughts; they act without
verbalizing.
 Applying Vygotsky’s Theory to Children’s

Education
1. Assess the child’s ZPD.

2. Use the child’s ZPD in teaching.

3. Use more-skilled peers as teachers.

4. Monitor and encourage children’s use of private

speech.
5. Place instruction in a meaningful context.

6. Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas.

 VYGOTSKY
Sociocultural Context Strong emphasis
Constructivism Social constructivist
Stages No general stages of
development proposed
Key Processes ZPD, language, dialogue,
tools for culture
Role of Language Major role; Language plays
a powerful role in shaping
thought
View on Education Education plays a central
role, helping the children
learn the tools of the culture and have already emerged
Teaching Implications Teacher is a facilitator, not a
director; establish many
opportunities for children
to learn with the children
and more-skilled peers
PIAGET
Little emphasis
Cognitive Constructivist
Strong emphasis on stages
Schema, assimilation,
accommodation,
operations, conservation,
classification
Minimal role; cognition
primarily directs learning
Education merely refines
the child’s cognitive skills
Also views teacher as a
facilitator and guide, not a
director; provides support
for children to explore their
world and discover
knowledge
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
 LANGUAGE- a form of communication
whether spoken, written or signed, that is
based on a system of symbols
 All human languages have some common
characteristics. These include infinite
generativity and organizational rules.
 INFINITE GENERATIVITY- ability to
produce an endless number of meaningful
sentences using a finite set of words and
rules.
 When we say RULES, it means that
language is orderly and that rules
describes the way language works.
Language involves the five system of rules:
1. PHONOLOGY- a language’s sound
system. Phoneme- basic unit of language;
the smallest unit of sound that affects
meaning. Ex: /k/= ski /k/= cat.
2. MORPHOLOGY- units of meaning
involved in word formation
 Morpheme- minimal unit of meaning; it is a
word or part of a word that cannot be
broken into smaller meaningful parts.
Every word in the English language is
made up of one or more morphemes.
 Some words consist of a single morpheme

(ex:help), whereas others are made up of

more than one morpheme (ex: help +er=
helper)
3. SYNTAX- the ways that words must be
combined to form acceptable phrases and
sentences. (Ex. Bob slugged Tom)
4. SEMANTICS- The meaning of words and
sentences. Every word has a set of semantic
features or required attributes related to
meaning. (Ex: Girl and women)
5, PRAGMATICS- The appropriate use of
language in different contexts.

BIOLOGICAL and ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES
Both biological and environmental influences play
important roles in children’s language development
 WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF
LANGUAGE
 By the age of 5, most children have
mastered almost all the sounds of their
native language. In terms of vocabulary,
we understand more words than we use.
 By the age of 6, children understand up to
20,000 words and use about 2,600 words.
 Understanding of words that express
abstract ideas and hypothetical situations
comes later as cognitive abilities develop.
 SOCIAL CONTEXTS and
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
A. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
(1917-2005)- focuses on the social contexts
in which children live and the people who
influence their development.
ECOLOGICAL THEORY- it consists of five
environmental systems: microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and
chronosystem.
1. Microsystem- a setting in which the
individual spends considerable time
such as the student’s family, peers,
school and neighborhood. Within these
microsystems, the individual has direct
interactions with parents, teachers, peers
and others.
For Bronfenbrenner, the student is not a
passive recipient of experiences but
someone who reciprocally interacts with
others and helps to construct the
microsystem.
2. Mesosystem- involves linkages between
microsystems. Ex: connections between family
experiences and school experiences and between
family and peers.
3. Exosystem- experiences in another setting
influence what students and teachers
experience in the immediate context. Ex: school
and DEPED officials
4. Macrosystem- involves the broader culture
(roles of ethnicity and socioeconomic factors in
children’s development) Ex: some cultures
emphasizes traditional gender roles-China and Iran.
5. Chronosystem- includes the
sociohistorical conditions of students’
development. Ex: the lives of children
today are different in many ways from
when their parents and grandparents were
children.
Strategies for Educating Children Based on
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
1. Think about the child as embedded in a
number of environmental systems and
influences.
2. Pay attention to the connection between schools
and families.
3. Recognize the importance of the community,
socioeconomic status and culture in the child’s
development.
B. Erik Erikson’s Life-Span Development Theory
(1902-1994).
 Consists of eight stages; each stage consists of a

developmental task that confronts individuals

with a crisis
 Each crisis is not catastrophic but rather a

turning point of increased vulnerability and

enhanced potential
 The more successfully an individual resolves
each crisis, the more psychologically healthy the
individual will be.
1. TRUST vs. MISTRUST (first year of life)-
Development of trust requires warm, nurturing
caregiving. Positive: feeling of comfort and
minimal fear Negative: when infants are treated
too negatively and ignored
2. AUTONOMY vs. SHAME and DOUBT (late
infancy-toddler years). Infants begin to discover
that their behavior is their own. Positive: they
assert independence and realize their will
Negative: when restrained too much and
punished too harshly, they develop a sense of
shame and doubt.
3. INITIATIVE vs. GUILT (pre-school, 3-5
years old). As young children experience a
widening social world, they are challenged
more than they were as infants.
Positive: let them engage in purposeful
behavior that involves initiative. Negative:
if they see themselves as irresponsible or
are made to feel too anxious.
4. INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY (middle to
late childhood, 6-puberty)- Children direct
their energy toward mastering knowledge
and intellectual skills (Positive).
5. IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION
(adolescence- 10 to 20 years old).
Adolescents try to find who they are, what
they are all about and where they are going
in life. Positive: if they are allowed to
explore different paths Negative: fail to
carve out a positive future path, they
remain confused about their identity.
6. INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION (early
adulthood, 20-30’s)- Forming close
relationship with others (Positive). Failure
to form intimate relationship with a
romantic partner or friend and become
socially isolated (Negative).
7. GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION
( middle adulthood, 40’s-50’s). Generativity-
transmitting something positive to the next
generation. Stagnation- feeling of having
done nothing to help the next generation
8. INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR (late
adulthood, 60’s-onwards)- tend to renew
their live, reflecting on what they have
done.
Strategies for Educating Children Based on
Erikson’s Theory
1. Encourage initiative in young children.

2. Promote industry in elementary school

children.
3. Stimulate identity exploration in
adolescence.
4. Examine your life as a teacher through
the lens of Erikson’s eight stages.
5. Benefit from the characteristics of some
of Erikson’s other stages.
SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Families- play an important role in
supporting and stimulating children’s
academic achievement and attitudes
toward school. May focus on different
parenting styles.
Parenting Styles:
1. Authoritarian parenting- a restrictive and
punitive parenting style in which there is
little verbal exchange between parents and
children; associated with children’s social
incompetence. (Ex: Do it on my way or
else..)
2. Authoritative parenting- positive parenting
style that encourages children to be
independent but still places limits and
controls on their actions; extensive verbal
give-and-take is allowed; associated with
children’s social competence.
3. Neglectful parenting- a parenting style
of uninvolvement in which parents spend
little time with their children; associated
with children’s social incompetence.
4. Indulgent parenting- a parenting style of
involvement but few limits or restrictions
on children’s behavior; linked with
children’s social incompetence.
COPARENTING- parents support one
another in jointly raising a child
The Changing Family in a Changing Society
1. Working Parents

2. Children in Divorced/Separated
Families
Strategies for School-Family-Community
Linkages
3. Provide assistance to families

4. Communicate effectively with families

about school programs and their child’s
progress
3. Encourage parents to be volunteers.
4. Involve families with their children in
learning activities.
5. Include families as participants in school
decisions
6. Coordinate community collaboration.
2. Peers- children of about the same age or
maturity level also play powerful roles in
children’s development and schooling.
Types of Peer Status:
a. Popular Children- frequently nominated
as a best friend and are rarely disliked
by their peers.
b. Average Children- receive an average
number of both positive and negative
nominations from their peers.
c. Neglected Children- infrequently
nominated as a best friend but are not
disliked by their peers.
d. Rejected Children- infrequently
nominated as someone’s best friend and are
often actively disliked by their peers.
e. Controversial children- frequently
nominated both as someone’s best friend
and as being disliked.
Friendship- influence children’s attitude
toward school and how successful they are
in the classroom. Having friends can be a
developmental advantage but keep in mind
that friendships are not all alike.
 APPLICATION
 In reference with your submitted
assignment:
1. form a group of 3 members;
2. Discuss your submitted work;
3. Choose your leader and present your
formed concept in front of the class.
Be creative in your presentation.
4. Time allotted: 15-20 minutes
 LONG QUIZ-Midterm
1. A form of communication whether spoken, written or
signed, that is based on a system of symbols.

2.Refers to the units of meaning involved in word

formation.

3. It refers to a language’s sound system.

4. The basic unit of language; the smallest unit of sound

that affects meaning.

5. The ways that words must be combined to form

acceptable phrases and sentences.
6 The thought is more abstract, idealistic and logical.

7. According to him, children’s cognitive development is

shaped by the cultural context in which they live.

8 The level of skill reached by the child working

independently.

9. The term used for the range of tasks that are too
difficult for children to master alone but that can be
mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or
more-skilled children.

10.The level of additional responsibility the child can

accept with assistance of an able instructor.
11.It discusses how children construct their knowledge
on the world.

12. These are actions or mental representations that

organize knowledge.

13.It occurs when people adjust their knowledge

schemas to new information.

14.Occurs when people incorporate new information to

their existing schematic knowledge.

15.A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how

children shift from one stage of thought to the next.
16.It lasts approximately from 2-7 years of age, symbolic
thought increases but operational thought is not yet
present.

17. The stage in which infants construct an understanding

of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing,
hearing,..) with motor actions (reaching, touching).

18. The ability to represent an object not present develops

and symbolic thinking increases; egocentrism is present.

19. Identified about 4-7 years old.

20. Children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to

know the answer to all sorts of questions.
21-25 Identify teaching strategies appropriate in
educating children under the theory of Jean
Piaget
26-30 Identify teaching strategies appropriate in
educating children under the theory of Lev
Vygotsky
31-35 Identify teaching strategies appropriate in
educating children under the theory of Erik
Erikson
36-40 Identify teaching strategies appropriate in
educating children under theory of Urie
Brofenbrenner
10 points each:
Discuss the following theories:
1. Cognitive Development Theory

2. Ecological Theory

3. Zone of Proximal Development

4. Life span Development Theory

( Psychosocial Theory)
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
LEARNING
 LEARNER- important factor in the
teaching-learning continuum for
these reasons:
1. he is the immediate client in the
teaching-learning process; he knows
best whether or not he is learning
2. he brings to teaching-learning
situation variables such as age, sex,
potentials, interest, motivations,
aspirations which may either hinder or
facilitate learning.

 THE TEACHER- another factor that

is as crucial as the learner for
effective learning. They play
multiple-roles oftentimes conflicting
roles.
 Teacher Variables Affecting the
Teaching-Learning Process
1. Academic qualifications
2. Experience
3. Interests
4. Patience
5. Intelligence and aptitudes
6. Sex
7. Age
8. Values
9. Personality
 Teachers are glorified maids with
very low salaries. Many intellectuals
do not take up teaching because they
feel that they would only wasting their
talents in a field with deteriorating
status that does not give just
COMPENSATION.
 ENVIRONMENT/CULTURE
-forces external to the individual and
internal and external to the school.
 Satisfaction with the school

environment facilitates learning

 It is best seen in the context of

culture
 CREATING LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS
1. The Need for organization
(Knowledge and expertise in classroom
management are marks of expertise in
teaching to avoid stress and exhaustion)
 classroom: Multidimensional,
public, unpredictable, simultaneous,
fast pace, and historical nature
 Basic Task: GAIN THEIR
COOPERATION- Gaining student
cooperation means much more than
dealing effectively with
misbehavior
 THE GOALS OF CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
Classroom Management- to maintain
positive, productive learning
environment.
1. More time for learning
a. expand the sheer number of
minutes available for learning
(allocated time)
b. time spent actively involved in
specific learning tasks (engaged
time/ time on tasks)
c. time when students are actually
succeeding at the learning tasks
(academic learning time)
2. Access to Learning- each classroom
activity has its own rules for
participation
 Participation structures- rules

defining how to participate in

different activities

3. Management for Self-Management-

helping the students become better
able to manage themselves.
 CREATING POSITIVE
ENVIRONMENT
A. Procedures/Routine- how
activities are accomplished in the
classroom
1. Administrative Routines
(checking of attendance)
2. Student movement
(entering/leaving/going to the
restrooms)
3. Housekeeping (storing personal
items)
4. Routines for accomplishing lessons
(how to collect and return
assignments)
5. Interactions between teacher and
student (as to how to get the teacher’s
attention if help is needed)
6. Talk among students(for giving
help and socializing)
B. Rules- specify expected and
forbidden actions in the class
Ex:
1. Respect and be polite to all
people
2. Obey school rules
3. Respect other people’s property
4. Listen and stay seated when
someone else is speaking
C. Consequences- sometimes more
complicated
Negative consequences:
1. Expression of disappointment
2. Loss of privileges
3. Exclusion from the group
4. Written reflections on the
problem
5. Detentions
6. Visits to the principal’s office
7. Contact with parents
 GROUP ACTIVITY-Review
 Create four defined groups
 Put your names in ¼ yellow paper
 Identify 20 items from the lecture notes
then after 10 minutes of preparation, the
leader will act the word infront.
 Each group will be given 3 minutes to act
all the chosen terms by the group.
 Grp 1vs. Grp.4/Grp. 2 vs. Grp. 3
 2 points per correct answer.
GROUP 1 GROUP 2
1 20 1
2 2 2 2
3 2 3
4 4 2
5 5 2
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16 16
17 17
18 18
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
 Interindividual differences- no two
learners are exactly alike
 Intraindividual differences- variations
across age and year levels
 HOW INDIVIDUALS VARY
1. Physiological characteristics
2. Physical characteristics
3. Potentials
 Physiological Characteristics
-neuro-biological approach (functions of
the nervous system and endocrine
system) affects learning
 Physical Characteristics

- Overt physical characteristics (height,

weight, complexion and general body
build)- factors that may affect the
development of self-concept
 Potentials
 Refers to mental capacities for learning

( a. Intelligence Quotient/ b. Aptitude)

Intelligence Quotient
-general capacity of the person to learn
and is associated with formal learning
 Measured through intelligence tests

 Does not explain but describes one’s

potentials for learning

A. Structure of IQ
A. Two-factor Theory (Charles Spearman)-
it says that two factors involved in
intelligence: the GENERAL and SPECIFIC
factors
1.1. General Factor- work in all
intellectual activities
1.2. Specific Factor- specific activities
(High IQ does not necessarily mean high
performance in all activities)
B. Multiple-Factor Theory (Thurstone)
 There are several factors that make

up intelligence as measured by an
intelligence test.
1. verbal comprehension
2. word fluency
3. number 6. perceptual speed
4. space 7. induction or general
5. associative memory reasoning
(These groupings have functional values which are
useful in many ways.)
B. Structure of Intellect Model (Guilford)-
composed of different dimensions
Components of each dimension:

b1. Operations- cognition, memory, divergent

production, convergent production, evaluation
 b2. Content- nature of materials or
information could be figural, symbolic
and behavioral.
b3. Products- form by which the
information is processed. Classified into
units, classes, relations, systems,
transformations and implications
B. Constancy of IQ- may be affected as a
result of the drastic changes in the
individual’s environment and interests of
the individual
C. Assessment of IQ
1. Ratio IQ= MA/CA x 100
2. Deviation IQ= standard score with a
mean of 100 and an SD that approximates
the SD of Standford- Binet IQ distribution
D. Classification of IQ
 with Standford-Binet Test as basis, Terman

and Merril classified IQ into Very Superior

(140-above), Superior (129-139), High
Average (110-119), Normal Average (90-109),
Low- Average (80-89), Borderline Defective
(70-79) and Mentally- Defective (below 70).
(No distribution of IQ with Phil. population have
been done)
(Intelligence tests may either be verbal or non-
verbal)
 IQ Tests Used in the Philippines
 Philippine Studies on IQ

Aptitude
 Refers to the capacity to learn in a specific field

 may vary

 DAT (Differential Aptitude Test): spelling,

grammar, numerical, abstract reasoning,

mechanical, clerical tasks
(Aptitude tests have been shown to be more powerful
that IQ tests. (Chavez,1981)
  Implications of Individual Differences
1. Varying the techniques of instruction
2. Selection of instructional materials
3. Varying the setting of instruction
4. Arrangements for working have
differential effects on individuals
5. Peer- group influence vary among
students with different levels of
academic achievement
6. Ability grouping of students with
different personality structures, abilities
and motivation
7. Types of reinforcement adjusted to
personality types of learners
8. Magnitude of reinforcement varied
with students of different levels of
persistence
  Approaches to Learning
 The approach of a learner to a given
task is crucial in learning. Sperry(1972)
said that variations should consider the
following:
1. Tempo in learning-the child’s rate of
learning should not be confused with
capacity
2. Independence in work- learners profit
invariably from independent work
3. Attentiveness- there is a wide
variation in the learner’s attention span
4. Reactions to new situations- may
generate different reactions
 Ability Grouping

- Assigning high achieving pupils to a

particular row and low-achieving pupils
to another
  Considerations in Ability Grouping:
1. Not in itself a solution to anything, still
depends on a teacher
2. If done at all, should be done for all subjects
3. More common and more worthwhile after
elementary grades
4. Impractical in small groups
5. Must be flexible
6. Should not be based on just one score
7. Will reduce but not certainly eliminate
individual differences