Radiation Units and

biological effects of
radiation
 Radioactivity Units
Physical Units

Becquerel
◦ 1 disintgrationn per second
◦ Henri Becquerel: discovered radioactivity through
experiments with uranium and other radioactive matter

Curie (Ci)
◦ 3.7*1010 decays per second
 2-Exposure units
(Roentgen(abbreviated 'R‘)
The roentgen is a unit for measuring exposure. (Older but still
in use)

The roentgen is essentially a measure of how many ion pairs

are formed in a given volume of air when it is exposed to
radiation.

The unit for exposure is Coulomb/kg.

1R=2.58X10-4 Coulomb/kg.
 3- Biological Units
Dose is the measure of the amount of energy deposited in the matter (any
medium) by the ionizing radiation / unit mass of the irradiated material at the place
of interest.
The unit of dose is Gray (Gy). The older unit of dose is Rad (still in use)
100 rad=1 Gy
The unit Gy (or rad)is valid for
1. for all types of radiation
2. for any energy
3. in any medium
The radiation absorbed dose is important for
describing radiation effects.
The absorbed dose relates to how much radiation
energy gets put into a given target mass

The absorbed dose has units of energy divided by

mass (e.g., ergs per gram or joules per kilogram)
Dose equivalent
Equal doses of different types or energies of radiation cause different
amounts of damage to living tissue.

For example, 1 Gy of alpha radiation causes about 20 times damage

as 1 Gy of x- rays. (as the ionization produced by alpha radiation is
much intense than the inonisation produced by X-rays or Gamma
rays.

Dose equivalent – to express the effect of all ionizing radiations on a

common scale.
The unit for dose equivalent is Sievert (Sv). The older unit is rem
(roentgen equivalent man). 1 Sievert =100 rem.

Smaller units mSv or mRem are also often used.

Dose equivalent = Radiation weighing factor x Absorbed
dose (Gy)
WR
X rays, gamma rays, electrons, positrons 1
Neutrons, protons (10 -100 Ke V) 10
Neutrons, protons (less than 10 KeV ) 5
Alpha particles 20
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Questions
How much radiation does it take to
cause a person’s risk for a health effect
to increase?
What are the health effects that can
occur if there is enough exposure?
Is there a level of radiation that is safe?
 Risk
Risk from a radiation dose is typically based on calculations of the
“real” effect of the radiation dose that is absorbed.
These calculations are based on:
◦ The type of radiation.
Each type of radiation is different and affects tissues differently.
◦ The energy that it leaves in the body.
More energy means a higher probability of an effect.
◦ Where in the body the energy remains.
Radiation exposure to a nonsensitive area of the body (i.e., wrist)
really has no actual effect. Radiation exposure to a sensitive area of the
body (i.e., blood- forming organs) can have an effect if the amount of
energy left is high enough.
 Biological Organization: Cell
1. nucleolus
• Cell membrane 2.
3.
nucleus
ribosome

– protects cell from external 4.

5.
vesicle
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
6. Golgi apparatus
influences, such as toxins 7. cytoskeleton

–“gatekeeper”
8. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
9. mitochondria
10. vacuole
• Cytoplasm 11.
12.
cytoplasm
lysosome
–80% water 13. centrioles within centrosome

–Helps convert nutrients

into energy
–Location of biochemical
reactions for bodily
functions
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 Biological Organization: Cell
• Nucleus
–Contains instructions for:
• Cellular reproduction
• Cellular function
Contained within
chromosomes
• Chromosomes
–Strands of amino acids
(deoxyribonucleic acids – Image source:
Wikimedia.org
DNA) (public domain)

–Abnormal bodily function if

damaged or malformed
In a biological system, ionisation of a
molecule can lead to Direct or Indirect
damage to the system.

This damage to the system depends on the

concentration of free radicals and this in
turn depends on the number of ionisation
events per unit mass.
Radiation Damage to
Chromosomes
Indirect damage
◦ Water molecule is ionized, breaks apart, and forms
OH free radical.
◦ OH free radical contains an unpaired electron in the
outer shell and is highly reactive: Reacts with DNA.
◦ 75 percent of radiation-caused DNA damage is due
to OH free radical.

Direct damage
◦ DNA molecule is struck by radiation, ionized,
resulting in damage.
Chromosome Damage
Formation of a ring and fragments followed
by replication of chromosomes.
Chromosome Damage
Interchange between two chromosomes
forms a chromosome with two centromeres
and fragment, followed by replication.
What Follows Chromosome Damage?

The cell might:

◦ Repair mild damage.

◦ Have some mild damage that sits inactive until
another agent interacts with the same cell.
◦ Have some damage, causing it to become a cancer.
◦ Stop functioning.
◦ Be killed.
The Effects on Health
Deterministic and Stochastic Effects

Deterministic Effects

Radiation doses involved here are usually substantial and

delivered over a short space of time and there is a threshold dose
below which no clinical effect is observed. These type of effects
are called Deterministic.
Stochastic Effects

Effects that occur by chance and which may occur without a

threshold level of dose, whose probability is proportional to the
dose and whose severity is independent of the dose.

In the context of radiation protection, the main stochastic

effect is cancer.
Important Radiation Effects

Molecular Damage to enzymes, DNA etc. and

interference to biological pathways
Subcellular Damage to cell membranes, nucleus,
chromosomes etc.
Cellular Inhibition of cell division, cell death,
transformation to a malignant state
Tissue, Organ Disruption to central nervous system,
bone marrow, intestinal tract. Induction of
cancer
Whole Animal Death; 'radiation lifeshortening‘
Populations Changes in the genetic characteristics of
individual members
 Radiation Effects on Humans:
Rate of Exposure
Biological damage decreases with decreasing dose rate

Acute Exposure
◦ High dose
◦ Short exposure time

Chronic Exposure
◦ Low dose
◦ Long exposure time
◦ Occupational radiation exposure
◦ Exposure from natural background radiation

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Acute Radiation Effects:
Localized Exposure

27
Chronic Radiation Effects:
Whole Body Exposure
Human body tolerates small doses of radiation exposure
better over a long period of time.
Human body –
◦ Repairs radiation damage
◦ Eliminates radiation-induced byproducts
….As long as the repair or elimination rate is larger than
the production rate.
500 rem acute dose
◦ Severe radiation sickness
500 rem delivered at 10 rem per week
◦ Little noticeable effect
28
 Chronic Radiation Effects:
Tissue Damage and Repair

Body continuously attempts to repair damage as it occurs

If damage too severe
◦ Repair mechanisms become strained
◦ Aging effects are increased
Continued exposure shortens average life span
May result in cancer
◦ Genetic mutation of cells
◦ Leukemia: Inability to produce white blood cells normally

29
 Exposure Levels and Symptoms

0.05 - 0.2Sv No symptoms

0.2 - 0.5Sv No noticeable symptoms

0.5 - 1Sv Mild radiation Sickness

1 - 2Sv Light radiation poisoning, 10% Fatality after 30 days

2 - 3Sv Moderate radiation poisoning, 35% fatality after 30 days

 Exposure Levels and Symptoms

3 - 4Sv Severe radiation poisoning, 50% Fatality after 30 days

4 - 6Sv Acute Radiation Poisoning, 60% Fatality after 30 days

6 - 10Sv Acute radiation poisoning, Near 100% Fatality after 14

days

10 - 50Sv Acute radiation poisoning, 100% Fatality after 7 days

MONITORING RADIATION EXPOSURE
Radiation dosimeters measures radiation dose to people.
Minimize Dose By Good Practices
TIME - reduce time of exposure
DISTANCE - increase distance
SHIELDING - use shielding
 Radiation is detected with survey meters

Alpha Survey Meter Beta, Gamma & X-ray

Survey Meter
Over one year
Radiation
Monitoring
Pocket Dosimeter