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RESERVOIR ROCKS
PETE - 314
COMPACTION OF SEDIMENTS
• Porosity is reduced by compaction
– Porosity reduction is determined by maximum
burial depth
– Principal effects are:
• Changes in packing
• Pressure solution
• Recrystallization
• Deformation of rock fragments
• Compaction effects are not reversed by
erosional unroofing (hysteresis effect)
MECHANICS OF COMPACTION
Pressure Solution
Rotation and Closer Ductile Grain Breakage of At Grain
Packing Deformation Brittle Grains Contacts
Platy Grains
(e.g., clays)
Non-Platy Grains
(e.g., qtz., feldspar)
Ductile Framework
Grain, e.g., Shale Rock
Fragment) Modified from Jonas and McBride, 1977
Relationship of Original Formation
Porosity to Overburden Pressure
50
40
Sandstones
30
20
Shales
10
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Overburden pressure, psi
Isothermal Compressibility
• General Definition
– The relative volume change of matter per unit
pressure change under conditions of constant
temperature
• Usually, petroleum reservoirs can be considered
isothermal (an exception: thermal stimulation)
• Increasing pressure causes volume of material to
decrease (compression) - e.g. reservoir fluids
• Decreasing pressure causes volume of material to
increase (expansion) - e.g. reservoir fluids
Isothermal Compressibility
• General Equation 1 V
C
V p
– C: Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility
• ALWAYS positive value
• oilfield units: 1/psia
– V: Volume
• oilfield units: ft3
– p: Pressure exerted on material
• oilfield units: psia
– Negative sign in equation determined by V/p term, to
force the coefficient C to be positive
– Volume is a function of pressure only (temperature is
constant, and amount of material is constant)
Formation Compressibility
• Importance
– Formation compressibility can have a significant impact
on reservoir performance
– Subsidence can have significant environmental impact
• Types
– Matrix Compressibility ( Cm ): relative change in
volume of solid rock material (grain volume) per unit
pressure change (usually Cm 0).
– Pore Compressibility ( Cf ): relative change in pore
volume per unit pressure change.
– Bulk Compressibility ( Cb ): relative change in bulk
volume per unit pressure change ( usually DVb DVp).
Significant decrease in bulk volume can cause
subsidence.
FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY
1 Vp
Cf
Vp p
F O
2. Thus: F F
o m
F
f
AND
p p p
o m
4.
3.
As fluids are produced from reservoir, fluid pressure (p) usually
Pressure Gradients, decreases while overburden is constant, and:
Normal Reservoirs: (a) force on matrix increases ( “net compaction pressure”,
pm=po-p)
dpo/dZ = 1.0 psia/ft (b) bulk volume decreases, and
dp/dZ = 0.465 psia/ft (c) pore volume decreases.
Formation Compressibility
• Equation 1 Vp
Cf
Vp p
– Cf: Formation Compressibility (Pore Volume Comp.)
• ALWAYS positive value
• oilfield units: 1/psia
– Vp: Pore volume
• oilfield units: ft3
– p: Pressure of fluid in pores
• oilfield units: psia
– Positive sign in equation determined by Vp/p term, to
force Cf to be positive
– Pore volume is function of pressure only (temperature
is constant, amount of reservoir rock is constant)
Subsidence and Bulk Compressibility
Process of subsidence
Bulk volume decreases as fluids are produced
Area is constant
Formation thickness decreases (causing subsidence of strata above)
Porosity: = Vp/Vb = 1-(Vm/Vb); where Vb=Vp+Vm
Net compaction pressure: pm = po - p
Overburden (po) is constant dpm= -dp
As net compaction pressure increases
Bulk volume decreases; Cb = -1/Vb (Vb/pm)
Pore volume decreases; Cf= -1/Vp (Vp/pm)
Matrix volume decreases; Cm= -1/Vm (Vm/pm)
Substituting from definitions above
Cb = (-1/Vb) [(Vp/pm) + (Vm/pm) ]
Cb = (-1/Vb) [(- Cf Vp) + (- Cm Vm)]
Cb = Cf + (1-)Cm; usually Cm << Cf
Formation Compressibility
• Calculation of Pore Volume Change
1
– Separate Cf dp dVp
Vp
p2 Vp2
1
– and Integrate p Cf dp V Vp dVp
1 p1
– Exact Integration p1
Cf p ln( Vp ) V
p2
Vp2
p1
DVp Vp1 eCf (p2 p1 ) 1
Formation Compressibility
• Pore Volume Change - Continued
1 dVp 1 DVp
Cf
Vp dp Vp Dp
1 Vp2 Vp1
Cf
Vp1 p 2 p1
DVp Vp1Cf (p 2 p1 )
Vp2 Vp11 Cf (p 2 p1 )
Laboratory Determination of Cf
• In reservoirs, overburden pressure is constant and
the pressure of fluid in pores changes, resulting in
pore volume change
• In the laboratory, we change the confining
pressure on the core plug (overburden) while
holding the pore pressure constant
• Remember that the net compaction pressure on the
matrix is the difference between the overburden
and pore pressures
– This allows us to obtain useful results in the laboratory
Laboratory Determination of Cf
• Laboratory Procedure
– Core plug is 100% saturated with brine
– Core plug is placed in rubber or soft copper sleeve
– As pressure outside sleeve is increased, pore volume
decreases and the volume of expelled brine is measured
pconfining
Hysteresis Effect - Formation Compressibility
• Hysteresis: The lagging of an effect behind its cause, as when the
change in magnetism of a body lags behind changes in the
magnetic field. (definition from dictionary.com, 2002)
• Hysteresis is used by Petroleum Engineers to describe the effects
of path dependence and irreversibilities we observe in reservoir
behavior
– For example, if we decrease reservoir pressure from initial conditions, pore
volume decreases. If we then increase reservoir pressure back to the initial
pressure, pore volume does not increase all the way back to the initial pore
volume.
Initial
Conditions
Pore Volume
Pore Pressure