Line Conductors and

supporting structures,
Insulation of overhead
lines, Sag and tension
calculation
 Transmission Lines
Overhead transmission lines are the backbone
of every electrical power system. Without
overhead lines, it is not possible to use power
plants with high output because the consumers
are not concentrated at the location of the
generation. Therefore, transmission line systems
like overhead lines or power cable are in use to
connect the power plants and the consumer. To
increase the reliability many power plants and
consumer are connected together to an
integrated network.
Components of Transmission Lines
• Conductor
• Earth wire (Ground wire)
• Insulators
• Other hardware (clamp, vibration
dampers, cable connector etc)
• Pylon (Tower)
• Foundation
 Line Conductors
The line conductors used for transmission
of power should have the following
properties:
 They should have low resistivity (or
high conductivity) in order to carry more
current.
 They should have high mechanical
(tensile) strength to withstand
mechanical loads like ice, stones, wind
etc, otherwise they may sag.
 Line Conductors
 They should be corrosion free.
 They should be light in weight.
 They should cause minimum voltage
drop (IR) and power loss (I2R).
 They should be cheap.
 They should be flexible. This is the
reason that stranded conductors are
preferred.
 Line Conductors
Some factors to be considered when selecting
the transmission line conductors include:
• Required sag and span between conductors
• Tension on the conductors
• Whether or not the atmosphere is corrosive
• Whether or not the line is prone to vibration
• Power loss allowed on the line
• Voltage loss allowed on the line
• Climate at the line location
 Line Conductors
The following materials are used for
making the line conductors.
 Copper
 Aluminium
 ACSR
 Galavanised steel
 Line Conductors
Copper:
Copper conductors give a relatively high
tensile strength. It has a good electrical
conductivity, long life, and high scrape
value. Copper conductors is most suitable
for distribution work where spans are
short. Their only negative point is that it is
costly.
 Line Conductors
Aluminium:
Aluminium is the next best conducting material after
copper. Its conductivity is less (2/3rd of copper) but it is
lighter in weight(1/3rd of copper). It is more effected by
sag due to weak mechanical strength. With aluminium
conductors, the length of span is also reduced. However,
it is very much in use in place of copper due to low costs.
Several types of aluminium conductors are as follows.
(a) AAC (All-Aluminium Conductors)
(b) ACSR (Aluminium conductors Steel Reinforced)
(c) AAAC (All-Aluminium Alloy Conductors)
(d) ACAR (Aluminium Conductors, Alloy Reinforced)
Line Conductors
 Line Conductors
ACSR:
Due to less availability of aluminium and
also for reducing cost, ACSR(Aluminium
Coductor with Steel reinforced) has
become very popular now.It has core of
galvanized(to prevent corrosion) steel
surrounded by aluminium strands.
 Line Conductors
Galvanised Steel:
Due to high tensile strength, galavanized
steel can be used at extremely large
spans. Galvanization protects steel
against corrosion. They are more in use in
rural areas where cost is the main
consideration. They are also used as earth
wire on poles, as stay wires and have
other similar applications .
 Line Conductors
Bunduled conductors:
For voltage above 230kV, it is not possible
to use a round conductor. Therefore, it is
preferable to use more than one
conductor, per phase. This is known as
bundling of conductors.Advantages of
using bundled conductors are: reduced
reactance, corona losses, radio
interference and surge impedance.
 Line Conductors
Bundle conductors are used to increase the
amount of current that may be carried in a line.
Due to the skin effect, ampacity of conductors is
not proportional to cross section, for the larger
sizes. Therefore, bundle conductors may carry
more current for a given weight.
More important, the bundle conductors result in
lower reactance, compared to a single
conductor.
As a disadvantage, the bundle conductors have
higher wind loading.
 Line Conductors
Skin Effect:
The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating
electric current (AC) to distribute itself within a
conductor so that the current density near the
surface of the conductor is greater than that at
its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow
at the "skin" of the conductor. The skin effect
causes the effective resistance of the conductor
to increase with the frequency of the current.
Skin effect is due to eddy currents set up by the
AC current.
 Line Conductors
Selection of conductor
The selection of conductor size shall be
governed by two factors:
 Electrical requirement
 Mechanical strength
 Line Conductors
Electrical requirements
The size of conductor will be determined
based on following parameters:
 Installed capacity of the plant, P in kW
 Operating voltage of the line V in kV
 Total length of the line to calculate the
losses
 Cost of construction
 Line Conductors

P  3  V  I cos 
P
I , (Amp)
3  V  cos 

V , I 
 Line Conductors
Losses,


l  I R  I  L
2 2
,

)
(
A

L  l , A  l ,V  l 
 Line Conductors
Therefore these factors must be compared
during selection of conductor size.
However it has been recommended that
for line 220 kV and above the size of
conductor shall not be less than 400 mm2.
 Line Conductors
Mechanical Strength:
The mechanical strength of the conductor is one
of the major parameter during the selection of
the conductor of the line. Three limits on
conductor tension are set by “The National
Electrical Safety Code (NESC)” to keep normal
tensions within reasonable limits and to prevent
conductor stresses above the elastic limit when
the conductor is fully loaded.
 Line Conductors
When the conductor is loaded to the
assumed climatic load, the tension shall
not exceed 60% of the ultimate strength.
This is referred to as the “loaded
condition”.
 Line Conductors
When the conductor is initially strung and is
carrying no climatic load, the tension shall not
exceed 35% of ultimate strength at a
temperature of 15.60 C (60o F). This is referred
to as the “initial unloaded condition”. After the
conductor has been subjected to the assumed
climatic load, it receives a permanent or inelastic
stretch. When the conductor reaches this
condition, the tension without climatic load at a
temperature of 15.60 C (600 F) shall not exceed
25% of ultimate strength. This is referred to as
the ”final unloaded condition”.
 Line Conductors
For a given ruling span only one of these
conditions will control the selection of
conductor size and the other two may
have relatively little significance in so far
the maximum allowable tensions are
concerned.
 Sag and tension calculation
Sag or Dip:
Because of their weight, overhead lines
hang downward and make the shape of a
curve between support.
The difference in level between the points
of support and the lowest point of the
conductor is known as sag or dip.
Sag and tension calculation
 Sag and tension calculation
The Factor affecting sag:
 Weight of the conductor: The heavier the conductor
is, the greater the sag.
 Ice and wind: Ice and wind also increase the weight
of the conductor, hence sag.
 span: The longer the span is, the more the sag. As
rough rule sag is directly proportional to span.
 Temperature: With the increase in temperature.e.g,
on sunny days, conductor expands; due to incease
in length, sag is produced. Similarly when they carry
current, they are heated and expand in length and
hang down.
 Sag and tension calculation
Important Note:
 When a conductor is stretched between
2 supports at the same level,the sag
takes the shape of a catenary. But if
the sag is very small, it is the shape of
parabola.
 The tension at any point on the conductor
acts tangentially.
 Sag and tension calculation
Importance of Sag:
 The tension in the conductor is inversely
proportional to the sag. While erecting the
overhead lines between supports, it is to be
kept in mind that they remain within the safe
limits of tension. For this, a provision is
always mad for sag.
 When sag is produced, conductors come
nearer to the ground. For safe clearance
between the ground and conductors, a larger
length of supports will be required for making
provision for sag.
 Sag and tension calculation
Importance of Sag:
 The length of conductors between
supports is kept large, to provide
allowance for sag.
 While stretching wires, a safety factor
of 2 is taken, i.e., tension on the
conductors is kept nearly 50 percent of
its maximum tensile strength.
 Sag and tension calculation
Sag or String Chart:
The Sag versus Temperature and tension
versus Temperature curves are known as
sag or string chart for the given conductor
and loading conditions.
 Sag and tension calculation
The sag and tension of the conductor are
subject to variations due to the changes in
temperatures and loading. For spans of
the order of 300 meters and less, the sag
and tension calculation can be carried out
by parabolic formula with sufficient degree
of accuracy. For the case of very long
spans, catenary formula gives more
accurate results than parabolic.
Sag and tension calculation
Parabolic formula
2
wl
d
8T0
Where:
D= sag
W=weight of the conductor
l=length of the span
T0=Tension at point of maximum deflection
 Erection of Transmission Line
Rout selection consideration:
Physical:
 Highways
 Stream, river, lakes
 Railroads
 Airstrips
 Topography (major ridge lines, floodplains,
etc.)
 Transmission lines & distribution lines
 Pipelines, (water, gas, sewer),
 underground Electric cables Occupied
buildings
 Erection of Transmission Line
Human Environmental:
 Cropland
 Urban development
 Industrial development
 Mining areas
 Recreation or aesthetic areas, national
parks, local parks
 Farmland
 Irrigation (existing and potential)
 Historic and archeological sites
 Wild and scenic river
 Erection of Transmission Line
Biological:
 Woodland
 Wetland
 Waterfowl, wildlife refuge areas,
endangered species & critical Habitat
Areas
Others:
 Federal, state and county controlled
lands
 Supporting Structure
These serve the purpose of keeping the
conductors at a safe height from ground
as well as at an adequate distance from
each other. The construction of the
support is dependent on the cost.
 Supporting Structure
(Pylon)
Overhead line route will involve the use of three
main types of tower. They are as follows:-
Suspension pylons: These support the
conductor on straight stretches of line.
Conductors are suspended by a vertical
insulator string.
Deviation pylons: These occur at points where
the route changes direction. Conductors are
attached by horizontal insulator strings.
Terminal Pylons: These pylons are of greater
bulk in order to ensure stability. They occur at
the end of overhead lines where they connect
with substations or underground cables.
Supporting Structure
(Pylon)
 Supporting Structure
In putting down deviation towers, guyed wires
and guyed blocks have to be used to balance
the tensile forces on the tower. When two forces
act on a tower (which is usually the tension of
the line), a resultant force is produced. A guyed
wire is used to counteract this resultant force so
as to prevent the tower from collapsing. The
guyed block is also used, and this is the buried
block to which the guyed wire is connected. The
block is usually buried at an angle to negate the
resultant force on the line. The above
description is figuratively shown below.
 Supporting Structure

Diagrammatic representation of the use of the deviation

tower with the Guyed Wire
Diagrammatic representation of the use of the Guyed Block
 Supporting Structure
Earthing
Once the geometry of the tower and the line
insulation level are fixed, the one factor, which
affects the lightning performance of a line that
can be controlled during the construction phase
of the line, is the tower-footing resistance.
Consequently, this should be measured during
this phase of the work and, if necessary, extra
earthing provided. The footing resistance to be
attained for different voltage categories
according to Soviet Union practice (as an
example) is given in table below:
 Supporting Structure

Specific resistivity of soil Resistance (in ohms)

(ohms/cm3) Up to 330 kV 400/500 kV
Up to 104 10 10
104 up to 5 x104 15 13
5x104 up to 10x104 20 15
10x104 30 30

Assignment: Soil resistance in (ohms/cm3) for different

areas in Pakistan may be collected from WAPDA for different
working voltages of T. lines and submitted to the teacher.
 Supporting Structure
Tower Erection:
Built up method, erecting the tower members by
member is most commonly used for erecting
towers. The erection progresses from the bottom
upward. The four main leg members of the first
section of the tower are first erected and guyed
off. The cross-braces are then assembled on the
ground and the assembly is raised as a unit and
bolted to the already erected corner leg angles.
The first section is thus built and horizontal
struts, if any are bolted in position.
 Supporting Structure
For assembling the second section of the tower,
an erecting pole is placed on the top of one of
the corner legs for raising parts of the second
section of the tower. The leg members and
braces of this section are then hoisted and
assembled. The erecting pole is thus moved up
as the tower grows. The process is continued till
the complete tower is erected. Cross-arms are
also assembled on the ground and raised up
and fixed to the main body of the tower.
 Supporting Structure
Construction of foundation:
Generally most of the tower foundation is
concrete foundation with different type. The
volume of concrete will vary from 15 m3 up to 40
m3 per foundation depending upon the load on
particular tower.
Quality control during the construction of
foundation is most, since the construction
materials like, sand, aggregate, cement and
steel are brought from different location and
quality may vary. Curing of foundation is often
challenging, because of lack of water at each
tower location.
 Supporting Structure
Towers have to be buried at a certain
depth to ensure that they do not collapse.
The depth may be from 6 feet up to the
height of the tower.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Electric insulation is a vital part of an electrical
power system. Although the cost of insulation is
only a small fraction of the apparatus or line
cost, line performance is highly dependent on
insulation integrity.
Insulation failure may cause permanent
equipment damage and long-term outages. As
an example, a short circuit in a 500-kV system
may result in a loss of power to a large area for
several hours. The potential financial losses
emphasize the importance of a reliable design of
the insulation.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
The insulation of an electric system is
divided into two broad categories:
1. Internal insulation
2. External insulation
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Apparatus or equipment has mostly internal insulation.
The insulation is enclosed in a grounded housing which
protects it from the environment. External insulation is
exposed to the environment. A typical example of
internal insulation is the insulation for a large transformer
where insulation between turns and between coils
consists of solid (paper) and liquid (oil) insulation
protected by a steel tank. An overvoltage can produce
internal insulation breakdown and a permanent fault.
External insulation is exposed to the environment.
Typical external insulation is the porcelain insulators
supporting transmission line conductors. An overvoltage
caused by flashover produces only a temporary fault.
The insulation is self-restoring.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
The insulators are attached to the tower
and support the conductors. In a
suspension tower, the insulators are in a
vertical position i.e I-arrangement or in a
V-arrangement. In a dead-end tower, the
insulators are in a horizontal position.
A 500-kV suspension tower with V string insulators.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Insulators:
The types of insulators used in transmission
lines are as follows:
 Pin-type insulators
 Suspension type insulator
 Strain-type insulator.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Stresses on Insulators:
Electrical Stresses
The electrical stresses on insulation are
created by:
 Continuous power frequency voltages
 Temporary overvoltages
 Switching overvoltages
 Lightning overvoltages
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Environmental Sresses:
 Temperature
 UV Radiation
 Rain
 Icing
 Pollution
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Mechanical Sresses:
 Weight of Conductor
 Ice and wind loading
 Mechanical oscillatons
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Testing of Insulator
(a) Type test:
 Dry flashover test
 Thirty second rain test
 Wet flashover test
 Impulse frequency flashover test
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Testing of Insulator
(b) Performance test:
 Temperature cycle test
 Electromechanical test
 Puncture test
 mechanical strength test
 Porosity test
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Testing of Insulator
(c) Routine test:
 High voltage test
 Proof load test
 Corrosion test
 Insulation of overhead
lines
Methods for Improving Insulator Performance
The most frequently used methods are:
1. Increasing leakage distance by
increasing the number of units or by
using fog-type insulators.
The disadvantages of the larger number of
insulators are that both the polluted and the
impulse flashover voltages increase. The latter
jeopardizes the effectiveness of insulation
coordination because of the increased strike
distance, which increases the overvoltages at
substations.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
2. Application insulators are covered with a
semiconducting glaze.
A constant leakage current flows through the
semiconducting glaze. This current heats the
insulator’s surface and reduces the
moisture of the pollution. In addition, the
resistive glaze provides an alternative path when
dry bands are formed. The glaze shunts the dry
bands and reduces or eliminates surface arcing.
The resistive glaze is exceptionally effective
near the ocean.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
3. Periodic washing of the insulators
with high-pressure water.
The transmission lines are washed by a large
truck carrying water and pumping equipment.
Trained personnel wash the insulators by aiming
the water spray toward the strings. Substations
are equipped with permanent washing systems.
High-pressure nozzles are attached to the
towers and water is supplied from a central
pumping station.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
4. Periodic cleaning of the insulators by
high pressure driven abrasive material,
such as ground corn cobs or walnut
shells.
This method provides effective cleaning,
but cleaning of the residual from the
ground is expensive and environmentally
undesirable.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
5. Replacement of porcelain insulators
with nonceramic insulators.
Nonceramic insulators have better
pollution performance, which eliminates
short-term pollution problems at most
sites.However, insulator aging may affect
the long-term performance.
 Insulation of overhead
lines
6. Covering the insulators with a thin layer of
room-temperature vulcanized (RTV) silicon
rubber coating.
This coating has a hydrophobic and dirt-
repellent surface, with pollution performance
similar to nonceramic insulators. Aging causes
erosion damage to the thin layer after 5–10
years of operation. When damage occurs, it
requires surface cleaning and a reapplication
of the coating. Cleaning by hand is very labor
intensive. The most advanced method is
cleaning with high pressure driven abrasive
materials like ground corn
 Insulation of overhead
lines
7. Covering the insulators with a thin layer of
petroleum or silicon grease.
Grease provides a hydrophobic surface and
absorbs the pollution particles. After one or two
years of operation, the grease saturates the
particles and it must be replaced. This requires
cleaning of the insulator and application of the
grease, both by hand. Because of the high cost
and short life span of the grease, it is not used
anymore.
Thank You