The dynamics of microscopic systems

How can we accommodate the fact that atoms and

molecules exist with only certain energies, waves
exhibit the properties of particles, and particles exhibit
the properties of waves?
 The Schrödinger equation

The Schrödinger equation, specifically the time independent

Schrödinger equation, for a single particle of mass m moving
with energy E in one dimension is
For three-dimensional systems
2
  2  V  E
2m
 2
 2
 2
2  2  2  2
x y z
 Eigen value

Eigenfunction
 x2
e
Three simple but important cases
• The wavefunction for a freely moving particle is sin x,
exactly as for de Broglie’s matter wave.
• The wavefunction for a particle free to oscillate to-
and fro near a point is e−x2, where x is the
displacement from the point.
• The wavefunction for an electron in the lowest
energy state of a hydrogen atom is e−r, where r is the
distance from the nucleus.
Born interpretation

the Born interpretation asserts that :

The probability of finding a particle in a small

region of space of volume δV is proportional to
ψ 2δV, where ψ is the value of the wavefunction in
the region.

In other words, ψ2 is a probability density.

Example
Interpreting a wavefunction
The wavefunction of an electron in the lowest energy
state of a hydrogen atom is proportional to e−r/a0.
Calculate the relative probabilities of finding
the electron inside a small cubic volume located at (a)
the nucleus, (b) a distance a0 from the nucleus.
Solution
Probability ∝ 2dV

(a) At the nucleus, r = 0, so there 2 ∝ 1.0

(because e0 = 1)

(b) At a distance r = a0 in an arbitrary direction,

2 ∝ e−2 × dV = 0.14 × dV.
the ratio of probabilities is 1.0/0.14 = 7.1.
  e r / a o

 2   *  e  r / a e  r / a  e 2 r / a
o o o

 2  r  ao   e 2 a / a  e 2  0,14
o o

 * 
  3  ir   *  3  ir
 * 
The observed kinetic energy of a particle is the average of
contributions from the entire space covered by the
wavefunction. Sharply curved regions contribute a high
kinetic energy to the average; slightly curved regions
contribute only a small kinetic energy.
 The central point to remember is that the
wavefunction contains all the dynamical
information about the particle it describes.

A wavefunction must satisfy for it to be acceptable:

1. It must be single valued (that is, have only a single

value at each point): there cannot be more than
one probability density at each point.
2. It cannot become infinite over a finite region of
space: the total probability of finding a particle in a
region cannot exceed 1.
3. The wavefunction is continuous everywhere
4. It has a continuous slope everywhere.
we are at the heart of quantum mechanics:
the fact that only some solutions are acceptable,
together with the fact that each solution corresponds
to a characteristic value of E, implies that only
certain values of the energy are acceptable. That is,
when the Schrödinger equation is solved subject to
the boundary conditions that the solutions must
satisfy, we find that the energy of the system is
quantized.
The uncertainty principle
It is impossible to specify simultaneously, with
arbitrary precision, both the momentum and the
position of a particle.
The quantitative version of the position–momentum
uncertainty relation is

px  12
Example
Using the uncertainty principle

The speed of a certain projectile of mass 1.0 g is known

to within 1.0 um s−1. What is the minimum uncertainty
in its position along its line of flight?
Solution
From px ≥ ½ , the uncertainty in position is

Self-test
Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the
speed of an electron in a hydrogen atom
(taking its diameter as 100 pm).
[Answer: 580 km s−1]
Normalization

  * d  1
Exercises

Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron

accelerated from rest through a potential difference,
V, of (a) 1.00 V, (b) 1.00 kV, (c) 100 kV.

Probabilitas antara x1 sampai dengan x 2 :

x2

P  x1 , x2     dx
2

x1
 Tunjukkan bahwa  = ex adalah eigen function
terhadap operator d/dx

dx
 
ˆ     d e x   e x  

ˆ  d / dx

  e x
 x2
Tunjukkan bahwa   e adalah bukan eigen
function terhadap operator d/dx

 
ˆ     d e  x2  2 xe  x2  2 x

dx
ˆ  d / dx

 x 2
 e