Refresher Course For Statistics

SEMINAR-WORKSHOP
ON STATISTICS
MR. RANDY L. ROBLES
Lecturer
PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

UN IVE R S ITY pnu.edu.ph
Mindanao
Multicultural Education Hub
TOPICS
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting

2. Basic Concepts on Statistics
3. Graphical Representations of Data
4. Sampling
5. Measures of Central Tendency
6. Measures of Variation
7. Measures of Correlation
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Test Concerning Means
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FUNDAMENTAL
COUNTING
PRINCIPLE
(FCP)
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COUNTING TECHNIQUES
•Experiment is any activity which can be done repeatedly

Example: drawing a card from a deck of 52 cards
tossing a coin
rolling a die
• Sample Space is the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment

Example 1: In tossing a coin, the possible outcomes
are head or tail. Hence the sample space is S = {H, T}
Example 2: In rolling a die, the sample space is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
•Sample point is an element of the sample space. Thus, in tossing a

coin, there are two sample points.

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• Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP)
If a choice consists of k steps, of which the first
can be performed in n1 ways, for each of these the
second can be performed in n2 ways, for each of
these third can be performed in n3 ways, . . ., and for
each of these the kth can be made in nk ways, then
the whole choice can be made in n1•n2•n3• . . . •nk
ways.

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TRY THESE:
1.There are five routes between an executive’s home

and her place of work. In how many ways can she
go to and from work if she does not want to use the
same route both ways?
a. 4 b. 5 c. 20 d. 25
2. A purchasing agent places orders by phone, by fax,

by mail, or by express carrier. He requests that the
order be confirmed by phone or fax. In how many
different ways can one of his orders be placed and
confirmed?
a. 4 b. 6 c. 8 d. 10

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3.Four married couple have purchased eight seats in
a row for a football game. In how many different
ways can they be seated if each couple is to sit
together?
a. 384 b. 350 c. 345 d. 360
4. In how many ways can a president, a secretary,

and a treasurer be selected from a committee of
seven?
a. 200 b. 150 c. 230 d. 210

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5. If a multiple choice test consists of 5 questions each
with 4 possible answers of which only one is correct.
In how many ways can a student check off one
answer to each question?
a. 1024 b. 243 c. 20 d. 16
6. A restaurant has on its menu 8 fish and 4 potato

dishes. In how many ways can I diner choose one of
the fish dishes and one of the potato dishes?
a. 42 b. 96 c. 24 d. 32

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STATISTICS
STATISTICS
• Statistics is a field of study concerned with (1) the

collection, organization, summarization, and analysis of
data, and (2) the drawing of inferences about a body of
data when only a part of the data observed.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• Descriptive statistics comprises those methods

concerned with collecting and describing a set of data so
as to yield meaningful information.
• You have seen descriptive statistics in many forms; bar
charts, pie charts, numerical tables, average rainfalls..
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• Inferential statistics comprises those methods concerned

with the analysis of a subset of data leading to
predictions or inferences about the entire set of data.
Classify the following statements as belonging to the area
of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
a. As a result of recent cutbacks by the oil-producing nations, we can

expect the price of gasoline to double in the next year.
b. At least 5% of all fires reported last year in a certain city were
deliberately set by arsonists.
c. Of all patients who have received this particular type of drug at a
local clinic, 60% later developed significant side effects.
d. Assuming that less than 20% of the Columbian coffee beans were
destroyed by frost this past winter, we should expect an increase of
no more than 30 cents for a kilogram of coffee by the end of the
year.
In a new subdivision, it was noted that 12 of the homes were colonials, 4 were
Tudors, 5 were French provincials, and 9 were of a contemporary design.
Classify the following conclusions that are drawn from these numbers being in
the field of descriptive statistics or statistical inference.
a. More colonial homes are constructed in new subdivisions than most other
designs.
b. Next to colonial homes, more residents in this subdivision preferred a
contemporary design.
c. The colonial designs outnumbered the Tudor designs by 3 to 1.
d. At least 30% of all new homes being built today are of a contemporary
design.
e. If the present trend continues, builders will construct more contemporary
homes than colonials in the next 5 years.
Basic Terms in Statistics
• Observation. It refers to any recorded information.

• Population. The set of all possible observations. It is a set or collection of
data – not a quantity describing the number of a particular species or things.
• Sample. A subset or a portion of the population.
• Parameter is a value that describes the characteristic of a population.
• Statistic is a value that describes the characteristic of a sample
A study is done to determine the average amount of television
watched per week by California children. What is the phrase “average
amount of television watched per week by California children”
describing?
A. observation
B. statistic
C. parameter
D. variable
12. A study is done to determine the average amount of television
watched per week by California children. What is the phrase "the
average amount of television watched per week by California
children in a random survey" describing?
A. sample
B. variable
C. statistic
D. data
13. A study is done to determine the average amount of
television watched per week by California children. Three of the
California children watch two hours, 1 hour, and one-half hour,
respectively. "Two hours, 1 hour, and one-half hour" are the:
A. observations
B. statistic
C. parameter
D. sample
Levels of Measurement
• The level of measurement of a variable in mathematics

and statistics is a classification that is used to describe the
nature of information contained within numbers
assigned to objects and, therefore, within the variable.
1. Nominal Measurement
• In this type of measurement, names are assigned to objects as labels. This

assignment is performed by evaluating, by some procedure, the similarity of
the to-be-measured instance to each of a set of named exemplars or
category definitions.
• For practical data processing the names may be numerals, but in that case
the numerical value of these numerals is irrelevant, and the concept is now
sometimes referred to as nominal number.
2. Ordinal Measurement
• In this classification, the numbers assigned to objects represent the rank

order (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.) of the entities measured. The numbers are called
ordinals. The variables are called ordinal variables or rank variables.
Comparisons of greater and less can be made, in addition to equality and
inequality.
• Examples include the Mohs scale of mineral hardness ; the results of a
horse race, which say only which horses arrived first, second, third, etc. but
no time intervals
3. Interval Measurement
• The numbers assigned to objects have all the features of ordinal

measurements, and in addition equal differences between measurements
represent equivalent intervals. That is, differences between arbitrary pairs of
measurements can be meaningfully compared. Operations such as averaging
and subtraction are therefore meaningful, but addition is not, and a zero
point on the scale is arbitrary; negative values can be used.
• Examples of interval measures are the year date in many calendars, and
temperature in Celsius scale or Fahrenheit scale
3. Ratio Measurement
• A ratio measurement scale is one in which the ratio between any two
measurements is meaningful. To achieve this a ratio scale has to have a non-
arbitrary zero value. Then operations such as multiplication and division
become meaningful as well. For a ratio scale one can thus say "This value is
double this other value".
• Examples
• Most physical quantities, such as mass, length or energy are measured on
ratio scales
Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
1. method of birth control 7. height and weight

2. light smokers vs. heavy smokers 8. birth order
3. blood levels of catecholamines 9. pulse rate
4. attitude toward family 10. body temperature measured with
planning using 5-point Likert scale Centigrade thermometer
5. quality of nursing care
6. degree of depression
Graphical
Representation of
Data

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Graphical Representation of Data
1. Histogram - is a graphical picture of a frequency

distribution consisting of a series of vertical columns or
rectangles each drawn with base equal to the class interval
and a height corresponding to the class frequency. The bars
of a histogram are joined together, that is, there is no spaces
between bars.

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2. Bar Chart – like a histogram uses each bar corresponds

to the frequency or percentage of the given class or
category. The categories are in turn placed in either the
horizontal or vertical axis based on the position of the bars.

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3. Frequency Polygon – is a special type of line graph,

where each class frequency is plotted directly above the
midpoint or class mark of its interval and lines are then drawn
to connect the points.

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4. Pie Chart – is an effective way of presenting

categorized (qualitative) distributions, where a circle is divided
into sectors – pie-shaped pieces – which are proportional in
size to the corresponding frequencies or percentages.

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5. Pictogram – also known as picture-graph where picture

symbols are used to represent values.

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6. Map Graph or Cartogram - is the best way of

presenting geographical data, where a map is drawn and
divided into desired regions.

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DEFINITION
• Sampling may be defined as measuring a
small portion of something and then making a
general statement about the whole thing.
• Sample means the portion of the
population taken as the subject of the study.
GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Probability Sampling. In probability, the sample is a proportion (a
certain percent) of the population and such sample is selected
from the population by means of a systematic way in which every
element of the population has a chance of being included in the
sample.
2. Non-probability Sampling. In non-probability sampling, the sample
is not a proportion of the population and there is no system in
selecting the sample. The selection depends upon the situation.
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Accidental Sampling. In this type of sampling, there is no system

of selection but only those whom the researcher or interviewer
meet by chance are included in the sample. The problem with this
type of sampling is its lack of representativeness. In research,
every section of the population being studied must be
proportionally represented in the sample. It is resorted to only
when there is no other alternative.
2. Quota Sampling. In this type of sampling, specified numbers of
persons of certain types are included in the sample. Suppose
reactions of the people towards a certain issue is to be determined
and the cross-sections of the population must be involved. It
might be decided that ten doctors, eight lawyers, fifteen
businessmen, twenty vendors and twenty-five farmers should
constitute the sample. Anyone of the groups selected participate
will do.
3. Convenience Sampling. Convenience sampling is a process of

picking out people in the most convenient and fastest way to
immediately get their reactions to a certain hot and controversial
issue.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Pure Random Sampling. This type of sampling is one in which
every one in the population of the inquiry has an equal chance of
being selected to be included in the sample. This is also called the
lottery or raffle type of sampling. This may be used if the
population has no differentiated levels, sections, or classes.
2. Systematic Sampling. This is a technique of sampling in which
every nth name in a list may be selected to be included in the
sample. This is used when the subjects or respondents in the
study are arrayed or arranged in some systematic or logical
manner such as alphabetical arrangement, residential or house
arrays, etc.
3. Stratified Random Sampling. Stratified random sampling is the
process of selecting randomly, samples from the different strata of
the population used in the study. Thus, this is used when the
population of the inquiry has class stratifications or groupings
either horizontally or vertically.
4. Purposive Sampling. Purposive sampling is determining the target
population, those to be involved in the study. The respondents are
chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the information desired.
However, the actual selection of the respondents is done either by
pure random sampling or systematic random sampling. If the
population is composed of differentiated groups, stratified random
sampling must be utilized.
5. Cluster Sampling. Cluster sampling or multistage cluster sampling
or simply multistage sampling is used when the population is so
big or the geographical area of the research is so large. The
general procedure is to divide the area or population into clusters
or blocks and then within the final cluster apply any of the
different methods of selecting a sample.
EXERCISE 1:
Among 200 students who speaks a certain first
language, 102 speaks Cebuano, 72 speaks Manobo, and 26
speaks Kamayo. If we use proportional allocation to select a
stratified random samples of 80 students to participate on a
study about pronunciation difficulties, how many must be
taken from each group?
EXERCISE 2:
Suppose an investigation of the teaching of science
in the high schools of a division is to be conducted, in which
106 science teachers are to be made respondents. There are
146 handling biological sciences, 206 handling chemical
sciences, and 178 teachers handling physical sciences, a
total of 530 teachers. Using stratified random sampling, how
many teachers from each sciences will be taken?
EXERCISE 3: Section No. of Students Samples
BEE II-1 40
There are 300 students
BEE II-2 42
from the third year classes of
BFE 35
PNU-Mindanao. Using
BECED 26
proportional allocation to select
BSEPhy 19
stratified random group of 75 BME 46
students to participate in a BMSEE 16
certain research, how many BPHE 28
students must be taken from BSSE 48
each section? Total 300
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean – is found by summing all items/ observations

and dividing the sum by the total number of
items/ observations.
Properties of the Mean
A. Uniqueness – for a given set of data, there is one and

only one arithmetic mean.
B. Existence – it can be calculated for any set of
numerical data, so it always exists.
C. It takes into account every item of a set of data.
Extreme values, therefore, have an influence on
the mean and, in some cases, can so distort it that
it becomes undesirable as a measure of central
tendency.

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2. Median – is the value of the middle item when n is odd,

and the mean of the two middle items when n is
even.
Properties of the Median
A.Uniqueness – as is true with the mean, there is only one

median for a given set of data.
B.Existence – it can be calculated for any set of numerical
data, so it also always exists.
C.It is not drastically affected by extreme values as is the
mean.

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3.Mode – is the item that occurs most frequent in a data set.

A set of data may have two or more values that tie
for the most frequently occurring. When this
happens, the distribution is multimodal. Also a set
of data may have no mode if no one value occurs
more frequently than the other.

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Measures of Variability/ Dispersion
Measures of Variability/ Dispersion – convey information

regarding the amount of variability present in a
set of data.
1. Range – is the smallest measure of variability. It is the
difference between the largest and smallest
observations in the data.
2. Variance -. Using the mean as the measure of the
middle of the distribution, the variance is
defined as the average squared difference of
the scores from the mean.
3.Standard deviation - simply the square root of the
variance.

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Question:
If we add the same constant c to

each item in the set of data, what will
happen to the:
a. mean?
b. median?
c. standard deviation?
d. variance?
of the new set of data?
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Correlation
Correlation
Finding the relationship between two

quantitative variables without being
able to infer causal relationships
Correlation is a statistical technique

used to determine the degree to which
two variables are related
Scatter diagram
• Rectangular coordinate
• Two quantitative variables
• One variable is called independent (X) and
the second is called dependent (Y)
• Points are not joined
• No frequency table Y
* *
*
X
Example
Wt. 67 69 85 83 74 81 97 92 114 85
(kg)
SBP 120 125 140 160 130 180 150 140 200 130
mmHg)
Wt. 67 69 85 83 74 81 97 92 114 85
SBP(mmHg) (kg)
SBP 120 125 140 160 130 180 150 140 200 130
(mmHg)
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80 wt (kg)
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Scatter diagram of weight and systolic blood

pressure
SBP (mmHg)
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
Wt (kg)
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Scatter diagram of weight and systolic blood pressure

Scatter plots
The pattern of data is indicative of the type of

relationship between your two variables:
 positive relationship
 negative relationship
 no relationship
Positive relationship
18
16
14
12
Height in CM
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age in Weeks
Negative relationship
Reliability
Age of Car
No relation
Correlation Coefficient
Statistic showing the degree of relation

between two variables
Simple Correlation coefficient (r)
 It is also called Pearson's correlation

or product moment correlation
coefficient.
 It measures the nature and strength
between two variables of
the quantitative type.
The sign of r denotes the nature of
association
while the value of r denotes the

strength of association.
±1
-perfect positive/negative correlation
± 0.8 - ± 0.9
-fairly high to very high positive/
negative correlation
± 0.5 - ± 0.7
-moderate positive/negative correlation
± 0.2 - ± 0.4
-weak positive/negative correlation
0
-zero correlation
Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders
pnu.edu.ph
How to compute the simple correlation
coefficient (r)
 xy   x y
r n

x 
2
(  x) 2
 
.  y 
2
(  y) 2


 n  n 
  
Example:
A sample of 6 children was selected, data about their
age in years and weight in kilograms was recorded as
shown in the following table . It is required to find the
correlation between age and weight.
serial Age Weight

No (years) (Kg)
1 7 12
2 6 8
3 8 12
4 5 10
5 6 11
6 9 13
These 2 variables are of the quantitative type, one
variable (Age) is called the independent and
denoted as (X) variable and the other (weight)
is called the dependent and denoted as (Y)
variables to find the relation between age and
weight compute the simple correlation coefficient
using the following formula:
 xy   x y
r  n
 ( x) 2  ( y) 2 
x 
2 .  y 
2 
 n  n 
  
Age Weight
Serial
(years) (Kg) xy X2 Y2
n.
(x) (y)
1 7 12 84 49 144
2 6 8 48 36 64
3 8 12 96 64 144
4 5 10 50 25 100
5 6 11 66 36 121
6 9 13 117 81 169
Total ∑x= ∑y= ∑xy= ∑x2= ∑y2=
41 66 461 291 742
41  66
461 
r 6
 (41) 2   (66) 2 
291  .742  
 6  6 
What is the correlation coefficient? r = 0.759

What is the degree of relation? fairly high
positive correlation
What does the value of the coefficient
imply? There is a positive correlation
between age and weight.
EXAMPLE: Relationship between Anxiety and
Test Scores
Anxiety Test
(X) score (Y)
10 2
8 3
2 9
1 7
5 6
6 5
EXAMPLE: Relationship between Anxiety and
Test Scores
Anxiety Test X2 Y2 XY
(X) score (Y)
10 2 100 4 20
8 3 64 9 24
2 9 4 81 18
1 7 1 49 7
5 6 25 36 30
6 5 36 25 30
∑X = 32 ∑Y = 32 ∑X2 = 230 ∑Y2 = 204 ∑XY=129
Calculating Correlation Coefficient
(6)(129)  (32)(32) 774  1024

r   .94
6(230)  32 6(204)  32 
2 2
(356)( 200)
What is the correlation coefficient? r = -0.94

What is the degree of relation? very high
negative correlation
What does the value of the coefficient
imply? The higher the anxiety, the lower
the test scores.
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
(rs)
It is a non-parametric measure of correlation.
This procedure makes use of the two sets of
ranks that may be assigned to the sample
values of x and Y.
Spearman Rank correlation coefficient could be
computed in the following cases:
Both variables are quantitative.
Both variables are qualitative ordinal.
One variable is quantitative and the other is
qualitative ordinal.
Procedure:
1. Rank the values of X from 1 to n where n
is the numbers of pairs of values of X and
Y in the sample.
2. Rank the values of Y from 1 to n.
3. Compute the value of di for each pair of
observation by subtracting the rank of Yi
from the rank of Xi
4. Square each di and compute ∑di2 which
is the sum of the squared values.
5. Apply the following formula
6 (di) 2
rs  1 
n(n 2  1)
The value of rs denotes the magnitude

and nature of association giving the same
interpretation as simple r.
Example
In a study of the relationship between level
education and income the following data was
obtained. Find the relationship between them
and comment.
sample level education Income
numbers (X) (Y)
A Preparatory. 25
B Primary. 10
C University. 8
D secondary 10
E secondary 15
F illiterate 50
G University. 60
Answer:
Rank Rank di di2
(X) (Y) X Y
A Preparatory 25 5 3 2 4
B Primary. 10 6 5.5 0.5 0.25

C University. 8 1.5 7 -5.5 30.25
D secondary 10 3.5 5.5 -2 4
E secondary 15 3.5 4 -0.5 0.25
F illiterate 50 7 2 5 25
G university. 60 1.5 1 0.5 0.25
∑ di2=64
6  64
rs  1   0.1
7(48)
Comment:
There is a negative weak correlation
between level of education and income.
Determine whether the given pairs
of variables are positively or negatively
correlated.
1. weight and age of the person

2. number of absences and score in the exam
3. age and experience
4. supply and demand
5. intelligent parents and their offspring

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SEMINAR-WORKSHOP

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

1. Fundamental Principle of Counting

•Experiment is any activity which can be done repeatedly

• Sample Space is the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment

Example 2: In rolling a die, the sample space is

•Sample point is an element of the sample space. Thus, in tossing a

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

1.There are five routes between an executive’s home

2. A purchasing agent places orders by phone, by fax,

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

4. In how many ways can a president, a secretary,

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

6. A restaurant has on its menu 8 fish and 4 potato

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

• Statistics is a field of study concerned with (1) the

• Descriptive statistics comprises those methods

• Inferential statistics comprises those methods concerned

a. As a result of recent cutbacks by the oil-producing nations, we can

• Observation. It refers to any recorded information.

• The level of measurement of a variable in mathematics

• In this type of measurement, names are assigned to objects as labels. This

• In this classification, the numbers assigned to objects represent the rank

• The numbers assigned to objects have all the features of ordinal

1. method of birth control 7. height and weight

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

1. Histogram - is a graphical picture of a frequency

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

2. Bar Chart – like a histogram uses each bar corresponds

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

3. Frequency Polygon – is a special type of line graph,

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

4. Pie Chart – is an effective way of presenting

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

5. Pictogram – also known as picture-graph where picture

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

6. Map Graph or Cartogram - is the best way of

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

1. Accidental Sampling. In this type of sampling, there is no system

3. Convenience Sampling. Convenience sampling is a process of

1. Mean – is found by summing all items/ observations

Properties of the Mean

A. Uniqueness – for a given set of data, there is one and

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

2. Median – is the value of the middle item when n is odd,

Properties of the Median

A.Uniqueness – as is true with the mean, there is only one

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

3.Mode – is the item that occurs most frequent in a data set.

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

Measures of Variability/ Dispersion – convey information

PHILIPPINE NORMAL Nurturing Innovative Teachers and Education Leaders

If we add the same constant c to

Finding the relationship between two

Correlation is a statistical technique

Scatter diagram of weight and systolic blood

Scatter diagram of weight and systolic blood pressure

The pattern of data is indicative of the type of

Statistic showing the degree of relation

 It is also called Pearson's correlation

while the value of r denotes the

serial Age Weight