ACTIVE FILTERS

1
 Introduction

• Uphill now the various op-amp circuits are discussed, which are used in variety of applications.
• Another important field of applications using op-amps is active filters.
• The filters are the circuits used to separate the complex signals according to the frequency ranges.
• Basically filters are classified as digital filters and analog filters.
• The filters are widely used in communication, signal processing, wave shaping and in almost all modem
electronic instruments.
• The analog filters using op-amps are called active filters.

2
 Active Filters

• A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all the
signals outside that band.
• It is a frequency selective circuit. The filters are basically classified as active filters and passive filters.
• The passive filter networks use only passive elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors. On
the other hand, active filter circuits use the active elements such as op-amps, transistors along with the
resistors, inductors and capacitors.
• Modem active filters do not use inductors as the inductors are bulky, heavy and nonlinear. The inductors
generate the stray magnetic fields. The inductors dissipate considerable amount of power.

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 Comparison between Active Filter and Passive Filter
• Active filter
• 1. It consists basic passive elements like resistors
and capacitors along with active element like op-
amp.
• 2. It provides gain greater than unity.
• 3. It can be fabricated into integrated circuit
being inductor less.
• 4.As it can be obtained in IC form, mass
production is possible which makes it cheaper.
• 5. Being inductor less, mutual coupling
Problems are not observed. The ideal filter
characteristic can be obtained easily.
• 6. The parasitic effects are observed.
• 7.In Active filter, the value of quality factor i.e Q
is higher.
• 8.Less area, less power consumption and high
operating speed are the features of active filter.
• Passive filter
• 1.It consists only basic passive elements like
resistors, capacitors and inductors.
• 2. It does not provide gain.
• 3.As it is not possible to fabricate inductor, the
passive filter is designed using discrete components.
• 4.As only discrete components are used in the
circuit, it is comparatively cheaper.
• 5.At higher frequencies the problems of mutual
coupling are dominant. It is difficult to obtain ideal
filter characteristic.
• 6.No parasitic effects are observed.
• 7.In passive filter, the Q value is less compared with
that in active filter.
• 8.Compared to active fitter, the passive filter
requires more area, more power consumption and
low operating speed is observed in it.
4
 Advantages of Active Filters
• The active filters have the following advantages over the passive filters,
• I. All the elements along with op-amp can be used in the integrated form, Hence there is reduction in size and
weight.
• 2. In large quantities, the cost of the integrated circuit can be much lower than its equivalent passive network.
• 3. Due to availability of modern ICs, variety of cheaper op-amps are available.
• 4. The op-amp gain can be easily controlled in the closed loop fashion hence active filter input signals is not
attenuated.
• 5. Due to flexibility in gain and frequency adjustments, the active filters can be easily tuned.
• 6. The op-amp has high input impedance and low output impedance hence the active filters using op-amp do
not cause loading of the source or load.
• 7. The inductors are absent in the active filters hence the modern active filters are more economical.
• 8. Active filters can be realized under number of class of functions such as Butterworth, Thomson, Chebyshev,
Cauer etc.
• 9. The response is improved as compared to passive filters due to ready availability of high quality
components.

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• 10. The design procedure is simpler than that for the passive filters.
• 11. Active filters can provide voltage gains, in contrast the passive filters often show a significant voltage
loss.
• In spite of the above advantages, the active filters also have certain limitations. The finite bandwidth of the
active devices place a limit on the highest frequency of operation. For most of the applications, with
present day technology, a reasonably good filter performance can be achieved approximately
upto 500 kHz. As against this. Passive filters can be used upto 500 MHz.
• Another important factor is the sensitivity. The active elements are much more sensitive to the
temperature and the environmental changes than the passive elements.
• Hence due to changes in the parameters due to environmental changes, the active filter performance
deviates from its ideal response.
• The requirement of d.c. power supply is another disadvantage of the active filter. The passive filters do
not require the d.c. supply.

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• The most commonly used filters are,
• 1. Low Pass (LP) filter
• 2. High Pass (HP) filter
• 3. Band Pass (BP) filter
• 4. Band Reject (BR) filter. This is also called Band Stop or Band Elimination filter.
• 5. All Pass filter
• In any filter, the band of frequencies passed by it is called pass band or bandwidth of the filter. While
the band of frequencies attenuated or suppressed or stopped is called stop band of the filter.
The frequency which separates these bands is called cut-off frequency of the filter.

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 Concept of Filter and Frequency Response
• The first basic type of filter is low pass filter. As the name suggests, it passes low frequency signals from
input to output while it blocks high frequency signals from input.

• The unwanted high frequency signals are called hash and are generated due to noise, scratching sounds etc.
The function of low pass filter is to remove this hash from input and to produce low frequency signal
output.
• If input consists many low frequency signals then each one gets transmitted to the output, without any
change in amplitude.
• Thus low pass filter is a circuit which passes the low frequency signals from input to output, rejecting the
high frequency signals.
8
 Frequency Response

• Any filter has following important characteristics,

• 1. Transfer function which is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of
input. It is denoted as T(s). Replacing variable s by jω. we get the frequency domain transfer function
T(j ω), This also represents gain of the filter.
• T(s) = Vo(S)/ Vin(S)
• T(j ω) = Vo(j ω)/ Vin(j ω)
• T(j ω) need not be always gain but sometimes it may be an attenuation or loss. Depending upon whether it
is an attenuation or gain, it is represented as alpha or A. Mathematically attenuation or loss is defined as.
• α= -20log |T| dB
• The unit of attenuation is decibel (dB). When the circuit provides attenuation or loss, |T| ≤ 1; log I T I is
negative, hence to get a positive, minus sign is introduced equation
• Similarly the gain is defined as A= 20 log I T|
• When a circuit provides gain, IT I > 1; so log 1 T | is positive, hence A is positive. The unit of gain is also
decibel (dB).

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 important characteristics
• 2. Frequency response: The graph of magnitude of transfer function I T(jω)| against the frequency ω is
called frequency response of a filter.
• 3. Cut off frequency The frequency at which the filter changes its gain (magnitude) by 3 dB is called cut-
off frequency of that filter.
• Bandwidth: The range of frequency over which the gain of the filter remains constant is called its
bandwidth

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 Frequency response characteristics of filters
• A low pass filter has constant gain from 0 hz to a high cutoff frequency fh, hence, the bandwidth of this
filter is also fh.

• (a)Ideal (b) Practical Low pass fitter

• The circuit allows the range of frequencies from 0 to fh. This range is known as the pass band. The range
of frequencies beyond fh is completely attenuated and hence called as stop band.
• Practically, the gain of the filter decreases as the frequency increases and at f = fh, the gain is down
by 3 dB and after fh, it decreases at a higher rate. After the end of transition band, the gain becomes
zero.
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• The decrease of gain in stop band is called gain roll off. It is at a rate of 20 dB/decode for first order filter
and is (80 x n) dB/decode for nth order filter.
• Using proper design techniques, precision component values and high speed op-amps, the practical
response can be obtained very close to the ideal response.

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 2. High pass filter

• For a high pass filter, fL is the low cut-off frequency. The range of frequency 0 < f < fL is the stop band
where f is the operating frequency. While the range of frequency f > fL is the passband.
• The transition band is practically not shown in the characteristics as it is very small. Hence, practically,
also range upto fL is called as stop band and f > fL as pass band. The range upto fL is completely
attenuated by high pass filter.

• . (a) Ideal 13
 Band pass filter

• The band pass filter has two stop bands. The range of frequency 0 < f < fL and range of frequency fH < f <
Ꝏ are two stop bands while the range fL < f < fH is the pass band. The bandwidth is thus fH - fL.
• The low pass filter passes only lower frequency range, the high pass filter passes only higher frequency
range while the band pass filter only passes the band of frequency between low and high frequency limits
defined by fL and fH.

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 Band elimination filter
• The band elimination filter is also called band rejection filter or band stop filter. Its characteristics is
exactly opposite to that of band pass filter. There are two pass bands while one stop band.
• The stop band is between the two frequencies fL and fH. The two ranges 0 < f < fL. and fH < f < oo are the
two pass bands.
• At frequency f = fc, the practical characteristics shows a notch and hence, this filter is also called Notch
filter.
• The frequency fc in both bandpass and band elimination filters is called center frequency as it is
approximately at the center of the pass band and stop band respectively for the two filters.

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 All pass filter

• all pass filter passes all the frequencies but it produces the phase shift between the input and output. The
output and input voltages are equal in amplitude for all the frequencies but with the phase shift between the
two. The frequency upto which the input-output amplitudes remains same is decided by the Unify Gain
bandwidth ( UGB ) of the op-amp used.

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 Important Remarks and Observations about Filters
• The filter can be represented in the time domain and frequency domain

• As the filter is frequency selective network, the output Vo (t) contains only some of the frequency
components of Vin(t). It is convenient to analyze the filter by representing it in frequency domain.
• where ω= 2пf and f is the operating frequency. In the steady state, the transfer unction can be represented
in the polar form as,

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• The magnitude is generally represented in dB as 20| log 1H (jω) |. In the frequency response of various
filters discussed above, the magnitude i.e. gain is plotted against the frequency. Thus, the magnitude of the
transfer function| H (jω) |=|Vo(s)/Vin(s)| is called gain of the filter. The filters are analyzed and designed
considering the magnitude and the lase angle of the transfer function.
• An important thing can be observed from the frequency responses discussed above is e behavior of the
gain in the stop band for the various filters. The frequency response either decreases or increases or both in
the stop band. The rate at which the gain of the filter changes in the stop band is dependent on the order of
the filter. If the filter is first der then gain increases at a rate 20 dB/decade in a stop band of high pass filter,
the in decreases at a rate 20 dB/decade in a stop band of low pass filter and so on. This indicates that there
is a change of 20 dB in a gain per decade (10 times) change in the frequency. Such a change in gain is
called gain roll off.
• In case of a second order filters, the gain roll of is at the rate of 40 dB/decade and on.
• The various types of filters used in practice which approximately produce the ideal response are :
i) Butterworth filters
• ii) Chebyshev filters
• iii) Cauer filters

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 First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter
• The first order low pass Butterworth filter is realized by R-C circuit used along with an op-amp, used in the
noninverting configuration. This also called one pole low pass Butterworth filter. The resistances Rf and
R1 decide the gain of the filter in the pass band.

• First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

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Analysis of the Filter Circuit

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21
22
 Design Steps

• The design steps for the first order low pass Butterworth filter are
• 1.) choose the cut off frequency fH
• 2) Choose the capacitance C usually 0.001and 1 u. Generally, it is selected as 1uF or less than that.
For better performance, mylar or tantalum capacitors are selected.
• 3) Now, for the RC circuit, fH
• 4) The resistance RF and R1 can be selected depending on the required gain in the pass band

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 Frequency Scaling

• Once the filter is designed, sometimes, it is necessary to change the value of cut-off frequency fH. The
method used to change the original cut-off frequency, to a new cut-off frequency fH1 is called as frequency
scaling. To achieve such it frequency scaling, the standard value capacitor C is selected first. The required
cut-off frequency can be achieved by calculating corresponding value of resistance R. But to achieve
frequency scaling, a pot is used
• Thus, the resistance R is generally a potentiometer with which required cut-off frequency fH can be
adjusted and changed later on it requited

• Problem Design a first order fitter low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 1kHz and a pass band gain of
2

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25
 Problem

• For a low pass filter , a cut off frequency is 30krad/s and the capacitor selected is 0.01uF. Determine the
corresponding value of the resistance required

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27
• 1. Derive expression for gain and phase angle of first order low pass
Butterworth filter and draw its frequency response.
• 2. Design a low pass filter at a cut-off frequency of 15.9 kHz with a passband
gain 1.5.
• [Ans.:C= 0.001uF,R=10k ohms,R1=10k ohms Rf=5k ohms

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 Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter
• The practical response of the filter must be very close to an ideal one. In case of low pass filter, it is always
desirable that the gain rolls off very fast after the cut-off frequency, in the stop band.
• In case of first order filter, it rolls off at a rate of 20 dB decade. In case of second order filter, the gain
rolls off at a rate of 40 dB/decade. Thus, the slope of the frequency response after f = fH is - 40 dB, decade,
for a second osier low pass filter.
• A first order filter can be converted to second order type by using an additional RC network .
• The cut-off frequency fH for the filter is now decided by R2, C2, R3 and C3.
• The gain of the filter is as usual decided by op-amp i.e. the resistance R1 and Rf.

• Second order low pass Butterworth filter

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 Design Steps
• The design steps for second order low pass Butterworth filter are
• 1) Choose the cut-off frequency fH
• 2) The design can be simplified by selecting R2 = R3 = R and C2 And choose a value of C less
than or equal to 1 uF.
• 3) Calculate the value of R from the equation,
• fti — ,iR2 R3 C2 C3
• 2nRC
• =C3 = C.
• 4) As R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C 3 = C, the pass band voltage gain AF = (1 + Rf/R1) of the second
order low pass filter has to be equal to 1.586.

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• Note : For R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the transfer function takes the form

• From this we can write that,

• Now, for second order Butterworth filter, the middle term required is √2 =1.414, from the
normalized Butterworth polynomial. 3 - AF =√2=1.414
• AF = 1.586
• Thus, to ensure the Butterworth response, it is necessary that the gain AF is 1.586.
• 1.586 = 1 + Rf/ R1
• Rf= 0586 R1
• Hence, choose a value of R1 ≤100 KΩand calculate the corresponding value of RfThe
frequency scaling method discussed earlier for first order filter is applicable to the second
order filter.
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 Calculate the value of resistance required in a second order low pass Butterworth
filter having cut-off frequency of 15 krad / s with a capacitor selected as 0.02 uF.

• Solution : For a second order filter,

• fH
• R1= R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C = 0.02uF calculate R
• Design a second order low pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz and draw the circuit
diagram
• Step 1 : The cut-off frequency is, 1H = 100 Hz
• Step 2 : Choose C2 = C3 = C = 0.1 u.F
• Step 3 : Choose R2 = R3 = R
• Calculate R
• Step 4 : For 2nd order Butterworth response Rf= 0.586 R1 So that AF = 1 + Rf/R1= 1.586
choose R1 = 10 KΩ and Rf = 5.86 KΩ

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33
34
• 1. Draw the circuit of a second order low pass filter and explain its working.
• 2. Design a second order low pass Butterworth filter having high cut-off frequency of 1 kHz.
Draw its frequency response. [Ans. C = 0.01 R =15.91 Ica Ri =10 kid, Rf = 5.86 kill
• 3. Design a second order low pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 200 Hz and draw the circuit
diagram. Assume C = 0.1uF
• [Ans.: C = 0.1uF R= 7.95 kΩ

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 First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter
• a high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all the signals below a specified cut-off frequency denoted as
fL.
• Thus, a high pass filter performs the opposite function to that of low pass filter. Hence, the high pass filter
circuit can be obtained by interchanging frequency determining resistances and capacitors in low pass filter
circuit.
• The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the elements R and C in a first order low
pass filter circuit.
• The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in pass band is called low cut-off
frequency and denoted as fL. So, all the frequencies greater than fL are allowed to pass but the maximum
frequency which is allowed to pass is determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the op-amp used.

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37
Analysis of the filter circuit

38
Analysis of the filter circuit

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40
• 3) At f > fL, i.e. high frequencies, 1 can be neglected as compared to (-f-ij )from denominator.
• Vo Vin
• a AF i.e. constant
• Thus, the circuit acts as high pass filter with a passband gain as AF. For the frequencies, f < fL, the
• Voltage gain
• gain increases till f = k at a rate of AF + 20 dB/decade. Hence, the sloe .707 AF pe (3 dB down) of the frequency response in stop band is + 20 dB/decade for first order high pass filter.
• The frequency response shown in the Fig. 5.7.2.
• Note
• Slope +20 dB/decade

• —Stop band-4,— Pass band • Frequency

• 0 tL
• Fig. 5.7.2 Frequency response
• As high pass filter is basically a low pass filter circuit with positions of R and C interchanged, the design steps and the frequency scaling method discussed earlier for low pass filter is equally
applicable to the first order high pass Butterworth filter.
• ExaniOle
• Design a high pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 10 kHz with a passband
• gain of 1.5. Also plot the frequency response for the designed filter. EaRITIENESIMEMEI Solution : Step 1 : The lower cut-off frequency is 10 kHz. fL = 10 kHz Step 2 : Choose C less than 1
uF. Let C = 0.02 uF Step 3 : Calculate R
• 1 = 2 ic R C
• R = 795.77 SI
• i.e. 10 x 103 —
• For frequency scaling, use a pot of 1 ki2
• Step 4 :
• But 41
• AF = 1.5 AF = 1+ =1.5
• Rf 0.5 R1
42
• The frequency response is shown in the Fig. 5.7.4.
• Gain in dB
• +5 dB 0 dB —10 —20 —30 —40 —50 10
• Revi -MI*ew Quettions"

• Slope 20dB/decade
• Stop band
• . Pass band
• 100 1000
• 10000 ft_ Fig. 5.7.4
• 100000 Frequency in Hz
• 1. Derive expression for gain and phase angle of first order high pass Butterworth filter and draw its frequency response. 2. Explain the operation of first order high pass filter
alongwith its frequency response.
• 36,
• 40
• Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter
• March-02," Aug.-02, July-0
• The second order high pass Butterworth filter produces a gain roll off at the rate of + 40 dB/decade in the stop band. This filter also can be realised by interchanging the
positions of resistors and capacitors in a second order low pass Butterworth filter. The Fig. 5.8.1 shows the second order high pass Butterworth filter. The analysis, design and
the scaling procedures for this filter is exactly same as that of second order low pass Butterworth filter. The resulting expression is given here for the convenience of the reader.
The voltage gain magnitude equation for the second order high pass filter is,

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• Linear Integrated Circuits 5 - 27
• Active Filters
• Example 5.8.1
• For the circuit shown in the Fig. 5.8.3, determine the lower cut-off frequency and then plot the frequency response of the filter. Comment on the order of the filter from the
frequency response.
• Ri 'NNW 47
• C2
• Rf WA, 27.542 kii +Vcc
• C3 + 0.01µF 0.01µF
• 1 11.3 11.3 kt2
• op-amp
• —VEE
• Fig. 5.8.3
• Solution : From the Fig. 5.8.3, R2 = R3 = 11.3 1c0 and C2 = C3 = 0.01 AF 1 1
• fL —
• vo
• 2 it VR2 R3 C2 C3 2 R,--(11.3 x 103)2 (0.01 x 10-6)2
• = 1.408 kHz From the two R-C sections used in the circuit, it is dear that the filter is second order high pass filter. To plot the frequency response, let us prepare the table
including the gain in dB obtained for various values of input frequency.
• where
• Vo AF 11 Vin f 4 1 + (T A + 13f. 4. 27.45742 F i
• Vo
• Vin 44
• 1.586
• Linear integrated Circuits
• 5 - 20
• Active FNters

• Fig. 5.6.4
• Review Questions
• 1. Draw the circuit of a second order low pass filter and explain its working. 120=1530:213 2. Design a second order low pass Butterworth filter having high cut-off frequency of 1 kHz. Drau,
its frequency response. [Arts. C = 0.01 trF, R = 15.91 kfl, Rr = 10 IA R5= 5.86 kS)] 3. Design a second order two pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 200 Hz and draw the circuit diagram.
Assume C = 0.1 A.F. [Ans. C = 0.1 tiF, R = 7.95 V)]
• rig First Order High Pass Butterworth Alter =1=1 As mentioned earlier, a high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all the signals below a specified cut-off frequency denoted as k. Thus, a high
pass filter performs the opposite function to that of low pass filter. Hence, the high pass filter circuit can be obtained by interchanging frequency determining resistances and capacitors in low
pass filter circuit. The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the elements R and C in a first order low pass filter circuit. The Fig. 5.7.1 shows the first order high pass
Butterworth filter.
• It can be observed that as compared to first order low pass filter (Fig. 5.5.1), the positions of R and C are changed in the high pass circuit shown in Fig. 5.7.1. The frequency at which the gain is
0.707 times the gain of filter in pass band is called low cut-off frequency and denoted as fL. So, all the frequencies greater than 1L are allowed to pass but the maximum frequency which is
allowed to pass is determined by the dosed loop bandwidth of the op-amp used.
• TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS. An up thrust by knowIed9.

45
• 5.6.1
• Calculate the value of resistance required in a second order low pass vutterwrth filter having cut-off frequency of 15 head / s with a capacitor selected as 0.02 !IF. Solution : For
a second order filter,
• but
• 61-1 27C 4R1 R2 CI C2
• R1 = R2 = R and — 1 and co= 2 n = 15 kradis 2 it x 0.02 x 10-" 15 x 103 = 2 7t x 1 42 n R x 0.02 x 104
• ci = = c = 0.02
• R = 3.33 Design a second order low pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz and draw the circuit diagram. Solution :
• E4,410.13,4
• Step 1 The cut-off frequency is, fH = 100 Hz Step 2 : Choose C2 = C3 = C = 0.1 p.F Step 3 7. Choose R2 = 113 = R Calculate R as shown below
• WTI.E.e.:4ait:1:10X14.- July-1 1,-_,16 Marks 6
• fH i.e. 100 = = 2nRC 2 nRx0.1x10-6
• R = 15.91 Step 4 For 2nd order Butterworth response Rf = 0.586 R1 So that A, = 1 + = 1.586Rf Choose R1 = 10 kit and Rf = 5.86 VI Use 10 kit potentiometer for precise
adjustment. The setup is shown in Fig. 5.6.4. LIU L. CiIII.J I. Canner

46
• I-II IVO' integrated Circuits
• 5-18
• Active FOten,
• cm Design Steps The design steps for second order low pass Butterworth filter are 1) Choose the cut-off frequency 41. 2) The design can be simplified by selecting R2 = R 3 = R and C2 = C3 =
C. And choose a value of C less than or equal to 1 3) Calculate the value of R from the equation, fH 1 = C3 2eRC
• 4) As R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the pass band voltage gain AF = (1 + Rf /RI) of the second order low pass filter has to be equal to 1.586. Note : For R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the
transfer function takes the form
• Vo (s) _ A r Vin (s) s2 +3 - AF , RC R2 C2
• ... (5.6.12)
• From this we can write that, = damping factor = 3 2AF ... (5.6.13) Now, for second order Butterworth filter, the middle term required is h =1.414, from the normalised Butterworth polynomial. .
3 - A, ==1.414 A, = 1.586 I ... (5.6.14) Thus, to ensure the Butterworth response, it is necessary that the gain AF is 1.586. 1.586 = 1 + R Rf = 0.586 Ri ... (5.6.15) Hence, choose a value of R, s
100 161 and calculate the corresponding value of Rf
• Key Point
• The frequency scaling method discussed earlier for first order filter is equally applicable to the second order filter.

47
48