Research

Methodology
 Measurement Scaling
• Measurement- The process of describing
some property of a phenomenon of interest,
usually by assigning numbers in a reliable and
valid way.
e.g. measurement of sales, perception of
consumers, performance of students.
• Scale- A device providing a range of values
that correspond to different values in a
concept being measured.
 Scales of Measurement
Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical Non-numerical Numerical

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Nominal Ordinal
 Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
• Data are labels or names used to identify an
attribute of the element.
• A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be
used.
Example: Male-1 Female-2 (numbers are not
representing different quantities or the value of
the gender)
Ordinal Scale
• The data have the properties of nominal data
and the order or rank of the data is meaningful.
• A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be
used.
Example: 1-5 (most to least important)
or 5-1 (most to least important)
Interval Scale
Scales that have both nominal and ordinal
properties, but that also capture information
about differences in quantities of a concept
from one observation to the next. Interval data
are always numeric.
Examples: SGPA, temperature, points given on
essay question
Ratio Scale
• The data have all the properties of interval data
and the ratio of two values is meaningful.
• Variables such as distance, height, weight, and
time use the ratio scale.
• This scale must contain a zero value that
indicates that nothing exists for the variable at
the zero point.
 Three Criteria for Good Measurement
• Reliability
Reliability is an indicator of a measure’s
internal consistency. A measure is reliable
when different attempts at measuring
something coverage on the same results.
Methods- split-half method; coefficient alpha
and test-retest reliability
• Validity- The accuracy of a measure or the
extent to which a score truthfully represents a
concepts.
Four basic approaches to establishing validity
are face validity, content validity, criterion
validity and construct validity.
• Sensitivity
A measurement instrument’s ability to
accurately measure variability in stimuli or
responses.
DATA COLLECTION
 Objectives
• Data collection and its purpose
• Types of data
• Sources of data
 INTRODUCTION
• Data collection is a term used to describe a
process of preparing and collecting data
• Systematic gathering of data for a particular
purpose from various sources, that has been
systematically observed, recorded, organized.
• Data are the basic inputs to any decision
making process in business
 PURPOSE OF DATA
COLLECTION
• The purpose of data collection is-
 to obtain information
 to keep on record
 to make decisions
about important issues,
to pass information on
to others
 Methods of Data Collection

• Essentially two types:

• 1. Primary data – are those which are
collected for the first time and are original in
character
• 2. Secondary data – are those which have
already been collected by someone else and
which have through some statistical analysis
 Primary Data
• Primary data are information collected by a researcher
specifically for a research assignment. In other words,
primary data are information that a company must gather
because no one has compiled and published the
information in a forum accessible to the public. Companies
generally take the time and allocate the resources required
to gather primary data only when a question, issue or
problem presents itself that is sufficiently important or
unique that it warrants the expenditure necessary to gather
the primary data. Primary data are original in nature and
directly related to the issue or problem and current data.
Primary data are the data which the researcher collects
through various methods like interviews, surveys,
questionnaires etc
 Advantages of primary data
• The primary data are original and relevant to the topic of
the research study so the degree of accuracy is very high.
• Primary data is that it can be collected from a number of
ways like interviews, telephone surveys, focus groups etc. It
can be also collected across the national borders through
emails and posts. It can include a large population and wide
geographical coverage.
• Moreover, primary data is current and it can better give a
realistic view to the researcher about the topic under
consideration.
• Reliability of primary data is very high because these are
collected by the concerned and reliable party.
 Disadvantages of primary data:
• For collection of primary data where interview is to be
conducted the coverage is limited and for wider coverage a
more number of researchers are required.
• A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection. By
the time the data collected, analysed and report is ready
the problem of the research becomes very serious or out
dated. So the purpose of the research may be defeated.
• It has design problems like how to design the surveys. The
questions must be simple to understand and respond.
• Some respondents do not give timely responses.
Sometimes, the respondents may give fake, socially
acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the
realities.
• With more people, time and efforts involvement
the cost of the data collection goes high. The
importance of the research may go down.
• In some primary data collection methods there is
no control over the data collection. Incomplete
questionnaire always give a negative impact on
research.
• Trained persons are required for data collection.
In experienced person in data collection may give
inadequate data of the research.
 Collection of Primary Data
Primary data may be collected thru:
• Experiments
• Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)
• Observation
• Personal Interviews
 Observation Method
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability
• Under observation – the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the
respondent
 Observation Method…

Main advantages are:

• Subjective bias is eliminated
• The information relates to what is currently
happening
• This method is independent of respondent’s
willingness to respond
 Observation Method…
Main Limitations are:
• It is expensive
• The information provided by this method is
very limited
• Unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observation task
 Types of Observation

Essentially two types:

1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation
 Structured vs. Unstructured
Observation
• Structured Observation – when the
observation is characterized by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information,
standardized conditions of observation and
the selection of pertinent data of observation
• Unstructured Observation – when it takes
place without the above characteristics
 Participant vs. Non-participant

This distinction depends upon the observer’s

sharing or not sharing the life of the group he
is observing
 Interview Method

The Interview Method of collecting data

involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses
 Personal Interview
PI Method requires the interviewer asking
questions in a face to-face contact with the
person
• Collecting information thru PI is structured –
the use of a set of predetermined questions
and highly standardized techniques of
recording
 Personal Interview…
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed
In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility
of approach to questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system
of pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information
 TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS
• Contacting samples on telephone
• • Uncommon method may be used in
developed regions
 MERITS
• Flexible compare to mailing method
• Faster than other methods
• Cheaper than personal interview method
• Callbacks are simple and economical also
• High response than mailing method.
• when it is not possible to contact the
respondent directly, then interview is
conducted through – Telephone.
 DEMERITS
•Little time is given to respondents
• Survey is restricted to respondents who have
telephones
• Not suitable for intensive survey where
comprehensive answers are required
• Bias information may be more
• Very difficult to make questionnaire because it
should short and to the point
 Other Interview Techniques
• Focused Interview – to focus attention on the
given experience of the respondent and its
effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the
manner and sequence of questions to
elicit/explore reasons and motives.
The main task is to confine the respondent to a
discussion of issues
• Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting
information is left to the interviewer’s discretion
• Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's
function is simply to encourage the respondent to
talk about the topic with a bare minimum of
direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as
a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the
respondent’s feelings and beliefs
• structured interviews : in this case, a set of
pre- decided questions are there
• unstructured interviews : in this case, we
don’t follow a system of pre-determined
questions.
• individual interviews : interviewer meets a
single person and interviews him
• selection interviews : done for the selection
of people for certain jobs
 Advantages
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained
2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
3. Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure
questions
4. Observation method can also be applied to recording
verbal answers
5. Personal information can be obtained
6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more
honest responses
 Disadvantages
1. Expensive method
2. Interviewer bias
3. Respondent bias
4. Time consuming
5. Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training, and supervising
the field staff is complex with formidable
problems
6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank
responses is very difficult
 Data Collection Through
Questionnaires
• Popular in major studies
• Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the Questionnaire
• A Questionnaire consists of a number of
questions printed in a definite order on a form
• The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space
provided
 Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. Low cost – even when the universe is large and is
widespread
2. Free from interviewer bias
3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru
their answers
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable,
can also be reached conveniently
5. Large samples can be used
6. Time saving
 Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Respondents need to be educated and
cooperative
3. Inbuilt inflexibility
4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
items
5. This method is slow
 Features of a Questionnaire
• Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs
to be carefully constructed
• Need to understand the features of the
Questionnaire – its general form, question
sequence and question formulation and the
wording of the questions
 1. General Form
May be either structured or unstructured
• Structured Questionnaires – are those in which
there are definite, concrete, predetermined
questions
• The questions are presented with exactly the
same wording and in the same order to all
respondents
• The form of the questions may be either closed
(yes or no) or open (inviting free responses
 Contd….
• Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed
alternative questions in which responses are limited to
the stated alternatives
• Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which
all the questions and answers are specified and
comments in the respondents’ own words are held to
the minimum
• Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above
characteristics are absent, it is known as a unstructured
Questionnaire
• The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on
the type of information to be obtained
 2. Question Sequence
• Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid
responses
• Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation
of one question to the next
• To establish rapport and to gain cooperation
from the respondent
– difficult questions, personal questions etc
should preferably come at the appropriate
time rather than at the begining
 3. Question Formulation & Wording
• Phrasing the questions must be clear and
unambiguous
• Questions should be impartial and unbiased
• Should be easily understood
• Should be simple (one idea at a time)
• Should be concrete
• Form of questions may be multiple choice or
open-ended
Data Collection Through Schedules
Very similar to the Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the
enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the
questions from the Performa in the order listed, and
records the responses in the space provided
Enumerators must be trained in administering the
schedule
 CASE STUDY METHOD
• It is essentially an intensive investigation of
the particular unit under consideration. Its
important characteristics are as follows :
• a) the researcher can take one single social
unit or more of such units for his study
purpose.
• b) the selected unit is studied intensively i.e.
it is studied in minute details.
 Collection of Secondary Data
• Published data are available in:
1. Publications of State/Central govt.s
2. Publications of International Bodies
3. Technical and Trade Journals
4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers
5. Reports/Publications of various organizations
(banks, stock exchanges, business houses, etc)
6. Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc
7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc
 Secondary Data must possess the
following characteristics:
• Reliability of data – may be tested by checking:
 Who collected the data?
 What were the sources of the data?
 Was the data collected properly?

• Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
be necessarily suitable in another enquiry
Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various
terms and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature
of the original enquiry must be studied

• Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they

are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than
the areaof the present enquiry
 INTERNAL SOURCES
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for
marketing application-
 Sales Records
Marketing Activity
Cost Information
Distributor reports and feedback
Customer feedback
 EXTERNAL SOURCES
External sources of secondary data are usually
for Financial application-
Journals
Books
Magazines
Newspaper
Libraries
The Internet
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
Primary Data
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Targeted Issues are
• High Cost addressed
• Time Consuming • Data interpretation is
• Inaccurate Feed-backs better
• More number of resources • Efficient Spending for
is required Information
• Decency of Data
• Proprietary Issues
• Addresses Specific
Research Issues
• Greater Control
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
Secondary Data
Advantages Disadvantages
• Ease of Access • Quality of Research
• Low Cost to Acquire • Not Specific to
• Clarification of Researcher’s Needs
Research Question • Incomplete Information
• May Answer Research • Not Timely
Question
 Secondary Data
• Secondary data are the data collected by a party not related to the
research study but collected these data for some other purpose and
at different time in the past. If the researcher uses these data then
these become secondary data for the current users. These may be
available in written, typed or in electronic forms. A variety of
secondary information sources is available to the researcher
gathering data on an industry, potential product applications and
the market place. Secondary data is also used to gain initial insight
into the research problem. Secondary data is classified in terms of
its source – either internal or external. Internal, or in-house data, is
secondary information acquired within the organization where
research is being carried out. External secondary data is obtained
from outside sources.
 Advantages of Secondary Data:
• The primary advantage of secondary data is that
it is cheaper and faster to access.
• Secondly, it provides a way to access the work of
the best scholars all over the world.
• Thirdly, secondary data gives a frame of mind to
the researcher that in which direction he/she
should go for the specific research.
• Fourthly secondary data save time, efforts and
money and add to the value of the research study
 Disadvantages of Secondary data:
• The data collected by the third party may not be a
reliable party so the reliability and accuracy of data go
down.
• Data collected in one location may not be suitable for
the other one due variable environmental factor.
• With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete
and very old • Secondary data collected can distort the
results of the research. For using secondary data a
special care is required to amend or modify for use.
• Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and
copyright.
 Syndicated Data
• Syndicated data can be structured or
unstructured data that is primarily provided
by external sources (data providers) as a result
of their analysis and studies conducted
• Not for any specific client but for selling to any
interested firm/researcher
• Marketing results, Survey results,
Common Usage patterns and forecasting
information
 Forms of Syndicate data
• Survey
– Periodic
– Panel Survey (data of same group over time)
– Shared Survey (Multiple Clients sharing expenses)
• Purchase Panel (Collecting Purchase
Information of customers/household
continuously)
• Media Panels
• Scanner Data (Barcode, RFID Scan data)
 Selection of proper Method for
collection of Data

• Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry

• Availability of Funds
• Time Factor
• Precision Required
SAMPLING
• Objective
To understand what is Sampling
Probability and Non-probability Sampling

61/42
Sampling is the process of selecting observations
(a sample) to provide an adequate description
and inferences of the population.
 Sample
 Itis a unit that is selected from
population
 Represents the whole population

 Purpose to draw the inference

 Why Sample???
 Sampling Frame
Listing of population from which a sample is chosen
What you What you
want to Population actually
talk about
observe
in the
data

Sampling
Process
Sample
Sampling
Frame

Inference
 All
subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability.
 Random number generators
Advantages:
 Minimal knowledge of
population needed
 Easy to analyze data

Disadvantages:
 Low frequency of use
 Does not use researchers’ expertise
Larger risk of random error
 Population is divided into two or more groups
called strata
 Subsamples are randomly selected from each
strata
Advantages:
 Assures representation of all groups in
sample population
 Characteristics of each stratum can be
estimated and comparisons made

Disadvantages:
 Requires accurate information on
proportions of each stratum
 Stratified lists costly to prepare
 The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families.
 A simple random sample is taken from each cluster
Advantages:
 Can estimate characteristics of both cluster
and population

Disadvantages:
 The cost to reach an element to sample is
very high
 Each stage in cluster sampling introduces
sampling error—the more stages there
are, the more error there tends to be
 Order all units in the sampling frame
 Then every nth number on the list is selected
 N= Sampling Interval
Advantages:
 Moderate cost; moderate usage
 Simple to draw sample

 Easy to verify

Disadvantages:
 Periodic ordering required
 Carried out
in stages
 Using smaller and smaller sampling units at each

P rim a ry
stage Secondary
Clu s te rs Clu s te rs S im p le R andom S a m p lin g w it h in S e co n d a

1
1
2
2 3

4
3
5
4
6

7
5
8
6 9

10
7
11
8 12

13
9
14
10
15
Advantages:
 More Accurate
 More Effective

Disadvantages:
 Costly

 Each stage in sampling introduces sampling

error—the more stages there are, the more
error there tends to be
 The probability of each case being selected from the
total population is not known.

 Units
of the sample are chosen on the basis of
personal judgment or convenience.

 There
are NO statistical techniques for measuring
random sampling error in a non-probability sample.
A. Convenience Sampling

B. Quota Sampling

C. Judgmental Sampling (Purposive Sampling)

D. Snowball sampling

E. Self-selection sampling

 Convenience sampling involves choosing respondents
at the convenience of the researcher.

Advantages
 Very low cost
 Extensively used/understood

Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled

 Projecting data beyond sample not justified

 Restriction of Generalization.
Thepopulation is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.

Advantages
 Used when research budget is limited
 Very extensively used/understood

No need for list of population elements

Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured/controlled
 Time Consuming

Projecting data beyond sample not justified

 Researcher
employs his or her own "expert”
judgment about.

Advantages
 There is a assurance of Quality response

Meet the specific objective.

Disadvantages
 Bias selection of sample may occur
 Time consuming process.
Theresearch starts with a key person and
introduce the next one to become a chain

Advantages
 Low cost

 Useful in specific circumstances & for locating rare

populations

Disadvantages
 Not independent
 Projecting data beyond sample not justified
Itoccurs when you allow each case usually
individuals, to identify their desire to take part in the
research.

Advantages
 More accurate
 Useful in specific circumstances to serve the purpose.

Disadvantages
 More costly due to Advertizing
 Mass are left
SAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling error is a type of error, occurs
due to the sample selected does not
perfectly represents the population of
interest
Two types of sampling errors
 Biased Errors- Due to selection of sampling
techniques; size of the sample.
 Unbiased Errors / Random sampling errors-
Differences between the members of the
population included or not included.
 Specific problem selection.
 Systematic documentation of related research.
 Effective enumeration.
 Effective pre testing.

 Controlling methodological bias.

 Selection of appropriate sampling techniques.
 An error occurs due to sources other than
sampling, while conducting survey activities is
known as non sampling error.

CAUSES FOR NON-SAMPLING ERRORS

•Sampling operations
•Inadequate of response
•Misunderstanding the concept
•Lack of knowledge
•Concealment of the truth.
•Loaded questions
•Processing errors
References
• Kothari C. R., Research Methodology,
• Banerjee, Subhojit and Roy, Ramendu (2010),
Research Methodology
• Fundamentals of Research Methodology, Kitab
Mahal, Allahabad.
• Business Statistics By T. R. Jain and Dr. S. C. Aggarwal
• Fundamentals of Statistics By S. C. Gupta