Combat Helmets Development

Outline
 Background
 Aim and Objectives
 Conceptual Discourse
 Combat Helmet Development
• Design
• Modelling and Simulation
• Materials and Manufacturing
 Combat Helmet Effects
 Conclusion
 Combat helmets and TBI
• A type of helmet specifically designed to protect a
soldier’s head during combat
• Wounds from explosions - most dominant of all
battlefield threats [1]

Source: [14]

Source: [13]
Source: [14]
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Combat helmets and TBI
• Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) - greatest % of
military personnel injuries [2]
• > 150,000 US Soldiers diagnosed with TBI since
2001 [3]
• 46.7% (63.9%) of TBI subjects from Afghanistan
(Iraqi) ops caused by IED explosions [4]
Source: [14]

Source: [14] Source: [15]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Aim and Objectives

This study aims to provide information to aid improvements in the level of

protection offered by combat helmets.

The specific objectives are to:

• study the recent trend;
• provide information on the mechanics of blast impact; and
• suggest possible directions of protection level improvement.

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Combat Blast Injuries
Blast effects - primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary blast injury

Source: [7]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 TBI

TBI:
• also known as “intra-cranial injury”
• a damage to the brain due to
external mechanical forces
• temporary or permanent
impairment of the brain functions

Source: [16]

Bullet wound to the head can be a cause but the major cause has been IEDs
and bombs [5]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Blast Wave

• sudden release of a vast amount of

energy in a very small volume
• shock wave + blast wind
• volume of gas expanding = shock wave
• surrounding air is accelerated by the
expanding shock = blast wind

“ The blast wave is a shot without a bullet, a

Source: [17]
slash without a sword. It is present everywhere
within its range.”
Theodor Benzinger, 1950

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Blast Wave
• shock wave - supersonic speed
• explosion-exposed soldier:
1. high-pressure shock wave
2. high-speed blast wind
• closed or open environment - blast
pressure increase (multiple reflection)
Source: [18]

Source: [8] Source: [8]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Evolution of Combat Helmets

Source: [1]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Essential Components of Combat Helmets

• Outer shell
• Inner liner
• Comfort liner
• Chin strap
• Retention system

Source: [11]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Areas of Research

The Advanced Combat Helmet (ACH) of the

Improved US army:
design

• currently the most notable of modern

helmet designs
• made from aramid fiber:
Combat 1. high tensile properties
Helmets
Research 2. Lightweight
3. high impact resistance
Improved
Improved
manufacturing 4. damage tolerance
materials
processes
5. rapid vibration damping
• contains 19 equivalent layers of prepreg
• compression-molded

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Fundamentals of Blast Impact Physics
Most important parameters:
• Peak over-pressure, ‘ 𝑝𝑠 + + 𝑝𝑜 ’
• Positive phase duration, ‘𝑇 + ’
• Time taken to attain the peak over-pressure,
‘𝑡𝑟 ’
• Specific impulse of the positive phase,
𝑡𝑎 +𝑇 +
𝑖𝑠 = න (𝑝 𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑎

Source: [6]

To describe the entire Friedlander waveform [6]:

−𝑏𝑡
𝑡
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑠 + 1 − + 𝑒 𝑇+
𝑇
‘𝑏’ is waveform parameter, a function of peak over-pressure
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Applying ideal gas model, laws of conservation of linear momentum and conservation of energy,
the jump in density across shock is:
𝜌+ 𝑀2 𝛾 + 1
= 2
𝜌𝑜 𝑀 𝛾 − 1 + 2
+: region immediately behind shock
𝑜: properties of air at rest
𝑐𝑝
Mach number ‘𝑀’ and 𝛾 = 𝑐 (ratio of constant pressure and volume specific heats)
𝑣

shock velocity:
𝑝𝑜 𝛾 + 1 𝑝𝑠 +
𝑢𝑠 = +𝛾
𝜌𝑜 2 𝑝𝑜
temperature jump:
𝜗+ 1 − 𝐹𝑙 𝐹+
= 𝐹+
𝜗− 𝐹+ − 𝐹𝑙
𝜌 𝛾−1
𝐹+ = 𝜌𝑜 and 𝐹𝑙 = 𝛾+1
+

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
using the temperature and densities, pressure jump across shock is:
𝑝+ 2𝛾
=1+ (𝑀2 − 1)
𝑝− 𝛾+1

• when there is an infinitely strong wave in an ideal gas initially at rest, 𝑀 → ∞ which means
𝐹+ → 𝐹𝑙 .
• For air, 𝛾 = 1.4, therefore 𝐹+ = 𝐹𝑙 = 1/6
• So, a strong shock in air can increase its density by almost a factor of 6.

To generate a description for the entire blast domain, the theory of point blast wave must be
applied.

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Applying laws of conservation of mass, momentum and energy to the wave surface [7]:
𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2
𝑝1 + 𝜌1 𝑢1 2 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌2 𝑢2 2
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝜈1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝜈2
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝑤1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝑤2
𝑞1 2 𝑞2 2
𝜌1 𝑢1 + 𝑙1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 + 𝑙2
2 2
Subscript ‘1’ and ‘2’ represent the unperturbed and perturbed sides respectively
𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the total velocities and 𝑙 = 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑉 is the enthalpy

• These front conditions can be used to find the parameters of the state and motion of the
perturbed medium

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
• The shock waves are treated like a plane straight shock wave
• Energy balance equation:
𝑝2 𝑢2 − 𝑝1 𝑢1 𝑢2 2 𝑢1 2
= 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 + −
𝜌1 𝐷 −𝑢1 2 2

𝑝2 𝑘 + 1 𝜌2 − (𝑘 − 1)𝜌1
=
𝑝1 𝑘 + 1 𝜌1 − (𝑘 − 1)𝜌2

𝜌2 𝑘 + 1 𝑝2 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑝1
=
𝜌1 𝑘 + 1 𝑝1 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑝2

𝑘 is adiabatic gas constant

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Propagation of Blast wave in Helmet
• relates to propagation of a pulse of stress and particle displacement through a solid body
at a finite speed.
Consider a helmet as an elastic bar with density, 𝜌 and moduli of deformability (Young’s
modulus, ‘𝐸’, Shear modulus, ‘𝐺’, Bulk modulus, ‘𝐾’ etc.)
If sudden pressure, 𝑝𝑜 is applied to the end 𝑋 = 0, for a period of time ‘𝜏’, causing a wave
of speed ‘𝑐𝑜 ’:
Stress distribution along the rod at time ‘𝑡’:
0, 𝑥 > 𝑐𝑜 𝑡
𝜎 𝑥, 𝑡 = ൞−𝑝𝑜 , 𝑐𝑜 𝑡 − 𝜏 < 𝑥 < 𝑐𝑜 𝑡
0, 𝑥 < 𝑐𝑜 𝑡 − 𝜏
strain energy:
1
𝑆 = 2 𝐹𝑥 but putting 𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝜎 = 𝜀𝐸
𝜎2
𝑠= 𝐴𝐿
2𝐸
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
1 𝑐𝑜 𝜏 2 𝑝𝑜 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜 𝜏
𝑆 𝜏 = න 𝜎 𝑥, 𝜏 𝐴𝑑𝑥 =
2𝑡 0 2𝐸
Kinetic energy:
1
𝑇= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Then:
𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝜏 2 𝑝𝑜 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜 𝜏
𝑇 𝜏 = න 𝑢ሶ 𝑥, 𝜏 𝐴𝑑𝑥 =
2 0 2𝐸
Workdone:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐿 but putting 𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝐿 = 𝑢𝑑𝑡
ሶ
Then:
𝜏
𝑝𝑜 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜 𝜏
𝑊 𝜏 = න −𝐴𝜎 0, 𝑡 𝑢(0,
ሶ 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝐸

• It can be seen that the work done by external force is evenly split into the strain energy
retained by the helmet and the kinetic energy of motion of particles.

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
• Furthermore, when a blast strikes the helmet, the pressure level rises suddenly then falls.
• The transient stress is transmitted through the material as a compressive stress wave which
would reflect once it hits the rear surface of the material.

Behind the wave, stress and particle velocity,

−𝜎𝑜
𝑢ሶ = are constant
𝜌𝑐𝑜

Behind the reflected wave,

𝜎1 = 0
𝑢ሶ = 2𝑢ሶ

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Reflection and Transmission of Blast wave in Helmet
𝜎𝐼 , 𝜎𝑅 , and 𝜎𝑇 are the amplitudes of the incident, reflected and transmitted waves respectively.
𝐴: cross-sectional area; from material 1 to material 2.
𝜎𝑇 2𝐴2 𝜌2 𝑐2
=
𝜎𝐼 𝐴2 𝜌2 𝑐2 + 𝐴1 𝜌1 𝑐1

𝜎𝑅 𝐴2 𝜌2 𝑐2 − 𝐴1 𝜌1 𝑐1
=
𝜎𝐼 𝐴2 𝜌2 𝑐2 + 𝐴1 𝜌1 𝑐1

• By implication, when 𝜌2 𝑐2 is greater than 𝜌1 𝑐1 , a pulse of the same sign as the incident
waves is reflected but when otherwise, opposite sign pulse is reflected [8].

To illustrate this, let us consider a 3-layer composite helmet with acoustic impedance ratio 1:2:4
(i.e. 𝜌1 𝑐1 = 2𝜌2 𝑐2 = 4𝜌3 𝑐3 ).

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Illustration of Wave Transmission in Helmet
𝝈𝑰 Incident 1:

Time 𝜎𝑅1 = −1ൗ3 𝜎𝐼

1 𝜎𝑇1 = 2ൗ3 𝜎𝐼
Incident 2:
𝜎𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑇1
2 𝜎𝑅2 = −2ൗ9 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇2 = 4ൗ9 𝜎𝐼
3 Incident 3:
𝜎𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑅2
𝜎𝑅3 = −2ൗ27 𝜎𝐼
4 𝜎𝑇3 = −8ൗ27 𝜎𝐼
Incident 4:
𝜎𝐼4 = 𝜎𝑅3
5 𝜎𝑅4 = 2ൗ81 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇4 = −4ൗ81 𝜎𝐼
Incident 5:
6 𝜎𝐼5 = 𝜎𝑅4
𝜎𝑅5 = 2ൗ243 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇5 = 8ൗ243 𝜎𝐼
Incident 6:
𝜎𝐼6 = 𝜎𝑅5
𝜎𝑅6 = −2ൗ729 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇6 = 4ൗ729 𝜎𝐼
Compressive wave
tensile wave Material 1: 𝜌1 𝑐1 Material 2: 𝜌2 𝑐2 Material 3: 𝜌3 𝑐3

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Illustration of Wave Transmission in Helmet
𝝈𝑰 Incident 1:

Time 𝜎𝑅1 = −1ൗ3 𝜎𝐼

1 𝜎𝑇1 = 2ൗ3 𝜎𝐼
Incident 2:
𝜎𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑇1
2 𝜎𝑅2 = −2ൗ9 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇2 = 4ൗ9 𝜎𝐼
3 Incident 3:
𝜎𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑅2
𝜎𝑅3 = −2ൗ27 𝜎𝐼
4 𝜎𝑇3 = −8ൗ27 𝜎𝐼
Incident 4:
𝜎𝐼4 = 𝜎𝑅3
5 𝜎𝑅4 = 2ൗ81 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇4 = −4ൗ81 𝜎𝐼
Incident 5:
6 𝜎𝐼5 = 𝜎𝑅4
𝜎𝑅5 = 2ൗ243 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇5 = 8ൗ243 𝜎𝐼
Incident 6:
𝜎𝐼6 = 𝜎𝑅5
𝜎𝑅6 = −2ൗ729 𝜎𝐼
𝜎𝑇6 = 4ൗ729 𝜎𝐼
Compressive wave
tensile wave Material 1: 𝜌1 𝑐1 Material 2: 𝜌2 𝑐2 Material 3: 𝜌3 𝑐3

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Blast Wave Modelling and Simulation
• Finite Element simulation of blast situations: widely accepted for studying the response of
structures
• Three different methods may be used to simulate the load[9]:
1. Purely Langragian Method:
• Mass of explosive material and its position relative to structure are specified
• Blast pressure is calculated by empirical equations
• No medium is considered so it does not consider blast wave propagation and reflection
2. Multi-Material ALE formulation Method:
• Simulates blast wave propagation and uses air as medium
• computationally very expensive due to Eulerian equations
3. Coupling Method:
• A combination of the other two in such a way that the complex equations of detonation
are not involved
• Increases accuracy while reducing computational cost
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
• The blast waveform propagation in the air using coupled method is verified against
experimental result and MM-ALE numerical method [9].

Source: [9]
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
• Results from modelling an elastic plate that was exposed to 200 𝑔𝑟 of standard TNT by one
meter stand-off distance, also verifies the superiority of the coupling method[9].

Source: [9] Source: [9]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Design of Combat Helmets
Materials and Manufacturing
• Composites for the outer shell (most important protector in the combat helmet).
• thickness of shell has a small effect on
the peak acceleration.
• Shell should therefore be as thin as
possible.
• Injection moulding, thermoforming and
expanded foam moulding are
manufacturing techniques used.
• Each technique has its pros and cons,
choice is made depending on the
required mass of production and cost

Source: [10]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Effects of Helmets on Blast propagation

• Blast waves are generated

experimentally using a shock tube
rather than the use of explosive
material.
• A shock tube can produce a plane
shock wave which is propagated
along the length of the tube.

Source: [18]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Effects of Helmets on Blast propagation

Source: [9] Source: [9]

A: with helmet
B: without helmet

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Effects of Helmets on Blast propagation

Source: [9] Source: [9]

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Effects of Helmets on Blast propagation

Source: [11]
Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Conclusion and Recommendation
• Helmets offer a good level of protection against the detrimental effects of exposure to blast
waves.
• Acoustic impedance offered by the various materials used in the helmet is the helmet’s most
critical property.
• If care is taken to the choice and arrangement of acoustic impedances, layered media will be
very effective in reducing transmitted stress levels and internal spall.

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
 Conclusion and Recommendation
The following suggestions are made:
• Combat helmet layers should be chosen such that each successive acoustic impedance
ensures greatly reduced transmitted stresses i.e. . 𝜌1 𝑐1 >>> 𝜌2 𝑐2 >>>𝜌3 𝑐3 >>>…𝜌𝑛 𝑐𝑛
• Face shields will ensure waves wrapping around the victim do not elude the helmet defense
and so assist in reduction of propagation.
• More research is needed into obtaining better strength to weight ratio from materials or
developing new materials that would offer such property.

Background Objectives Conceptual Discourse Combat Helmet Development Combat Helmet Effects Conclusion
References
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Academies Press, 2014.
2. A. Vechart, "Design of a Composite Combat Helmet Liner for Prevention of BlastInduced Traumatic Brain Injury,"
Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 2011.
3. "Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center (DVBIC)," [Online]. Available: http://www.dvbic.org.
4. B. E. e. a. Wojcik, "Traumatic Brain Injury Hospitalizations of U.S. Army Soldiers Deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq,"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 38, pp. S108-S116, 2010.
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113, no. 2, pp. 106-113, February 2010.
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1998.
7. K. P. S. a. B. I. S. F. A. Baum, "Physics of an Explosion," Russiaon Book, FIZmTGIZ, Moscow, 1959.
8. P. A. Lockhart, Primary Blast Injury of the Head: Numerical Prediction and Evaluation of Protection: University of Waterloo,
2010.
9. M. S. Jazi, "Examination of the Impact of Helmets on the Level of Transferred Loads to the Head Under Balllistic and Blast
Loads," North Dakota State University, Frago, North Dakota, 2014.
10. F. H. A. W. S. U. R. R. &. A. M. M. Shuaeib, "A new motorcycle helmet liner material: The finite element simulation and
design of experiment optimization," Materials & Design, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 182-195, 2007.
11. X.-L. G. S. H. J. Z. a. N. D. S.G. Kulkarni, "Ballistic helmets – Their design, materials, and performance against traumatic brain
injury," Composite Structures, vol. 101, pp. 313-331, 2013.
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brain-injury/
13. webpage: https://militaryfamilieslearningnetwork.org/2016/03/11/tbi-at-a-glance/
14. webpage: https://www.rand.org/topics/traumatic-brain-injury.html
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tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRl4ClN34LmHlJUgTYcPRKpf3qAoPVpjNde65r2PErzsO-s2nIqNg
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injury%2F&docid=1lo95TrwIFfwGM&tbnid=_xRK9Xii4hQuVM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwjMvoi0ipPhAhVPgK0KHQNpBSgQMw
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17. Webpage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NN05jCosAe8
18. Webpage: https://www.abs-group.com/News-and-Events/News/ABS-Group-Demonstrates-Blast-Test-at-WorldClass-
Shock-Tube-Test-Facility/
Thank You!