BASIC CHEMISTRY

Presented by Vivienne Sørensen

 LOGISTICS
•COURSE RECORD FORM - legible, black ink
•SCANCARD READER - entrance
•BREAKS - punctual, smoking policy
•CELLPHONES OFF
•EMERGENCY PROCEDURES - muster
•MEALS - admin office by 09:30
- disposal - bins outside
•MESSAGES - foyer
•TUCKSHOP -
•OUT OF BOUNDS - offices, workshops
•FEEDBACK FORMS
LESSON PLAN
• 08H00 - 9H00: Introduction / Chemistry
Concepts
• 09H00 - 9H10: Leg Stretch
• 09H10 - 10H00: Chemistry Concepts
• 10H00 - 10H15: Tea Break
• 10H15 - 11H00: Chemical Reactions
• 11H00 - 11H10: Break
• 11H10 - 12H00: Chemical Reactions
• 12H00 - 13H00: Lunch Break
LESSON PLAN

• 13H00 - 13H50: Water Chemistry

• 13h50 - 14H00: Break

• 14H00 - 14H50: Water Chemistry

• 14h50 - 15H05: Tea Break

• 15H05 - 16H00: Water Treatment Concepts

Operating Experience
 COURSE OBJECTIVES:
• Upon completion of this course, the trainee should be
able to:
• describe the basic structure of an atom
 define the following terms: element, atom, neutron,
proton, electron, isotope, compound, molecule
 describe the Periodic Table of Elements
 explain the function of electron shells
 identify and describe the characteristics of the
representative, transition and inner transition elements
 describe ionic and covalent bonds
 explain the term “polarity”
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 describe and use atomic weights
 describe reactions involving oxygen and hydrogen
 describe the structure of a water molecule
 list the factors that affect how much a substance
dissolves
 describe the characteristics of solutions
 explain the influence of electrolytes on corrosion
 define and describe acids, alkalis and salts
 list the types of impurities that occur in raw water
 describe solution equilibria and steam blanketing
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 explain equilibria of chemical reactions
 discuss the principle of pH.
 describe the two main types of corrosion
 Describe basic radiochemistry concepts
 INTRODUCTION
 Four main sections of chemistry: Organic,
Inorganic, Physical, Analytical

Electricity generation at Koeberg starts with a

chemical reaction.
Primary and Secondary Plant Chemistry systems
play a vital role in the long term integrity of the plant
This allows you to assist the Chemistry Group to
apply and achieve the Chemistry philosophy of
Effective Pre-emptive Chemical Control [EPCC]
Management Expectation PO 23
 CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Elements are the basic building blocks of all

materials.
• It is important to know what elements are
made of, how they are arranged in the
Periodic Table of Elements and how they
combine
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Defn. Atom:
• An atom is the smallest division of an element
that can be made that still retains the chemical
properties of that element.

• Consists of 3 sub - atomic particles:

• neutrons (neutral)
• protons (positive)
• electrons (negative)
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Defn. Compounds:
• Formed when 2 or more atoms from different
elements combine chemically eg. H2O

• Defn. Molecule:
• The smallest division of a compound that still
retains the chemical properties of the compound
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• This atom has 6 protons and is known as the

element, Carbon.
• The mass number, A,
• = sum of the protons and neutrons in nucleus.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• When an atom has an equal number of protons

and electrons, the positive and negative charges
balance each other.
• This results in atoms that are neutral.
• Since this is the normal state for atoms, atoms
are usually neutral.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Name the particles that an atom consists of?

CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Isotopes

• Definition: Isotopes of an element have different

neutron numbers yet they are chemically the same.

• Isotopes are chemically identical

- this is determined by the atomic number of the
element which remain the same.
• mass of isotopes will vary
• more neutrons  will have a greater mass.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

B
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Examples of Isotopes:

• 12C & 14C

• 10B & 11B
• 7Li & 6Li
• 1H, 2H & 3H

• Proteum, Deuterium, Tritium

CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• The Periodic Table of Elements

• Lists all the known elements in an arrangement

designed to show some of the specific
characteristics of each element.
• The table groups similar elements together.

• Each element is identified by a symbol which

was derived from its English or Latin name.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Although the name of an element may differ from

one language to another, its symbol does not.
eg, nitrogen is called Azoto in Italian and Stickstoff
in German, but the symbol for nitrogen stays N in
any language.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Nucleus = neutrons + protons

• electrons orbit the nucleus.

• Atomic number, Z,
• = the number of protons in the nucleus
• determines the place of the element in the
Periodic Table.
• Atoms are identified by the number of protons in
the nucleus.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• ENGLISH NAME LATIN NAME SYMBOL

• Antimony Stibium Sb
• Copper Cuprum Cu
• Gold Aurum Au
• Iron Ferrum Fe
• Lead Plumbum Pb
• Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
• Potassium Kalium K
• Silver Argentum Ag
• Sodium Natrium Na
• Tin Stannum Sn
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Elements are arranged in order of increasing

proton number, from left to right and from top to
bottom.
• exhibit certain characteristics that occur in a
pattern.
• elements with similar characteristics are grouped
together in columns.
• results in spaces in some of the rows.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• eg, as hydrogen and helium differ by one proton,

one would expect them to be situated adjacent to
each other.
• Their chemical characteristics are very different
• hydrogen is chemically similar to the metals,
• helium is chemically similar to the noble gases.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Elements are grouped into columns according to

whether they:
• (1) give up electrons when they form chemical
compounds i.e. metals
• (2) accept electrons when they form chemical
compounds i.e. non-metals
• (3) do not combine chemically with other
elements i.e. noble gases
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Group 1 elements give up one electron and are
more metallic than the Group II elements which
give up 2 electrons.
• elements that accept only one electron are more
non-metallic than elements that accept more
than one electron.
• This characteristic of elements accounts for the
way that the Periodic Table is arranged into
rows. Each row is called a Period.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• Explain why hydrogen and helium are not

placed next to each other in the Periodic
Table.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Atomic Structure

• The way that an element reacts chemically

depends on the number of electrons that the
element has.
• Electrons travel around the positive nucleus in
specific orbits called shells.
- seven shells arranged at varying distances from
the nucleus
- usually filled from the centre outwards.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
SHELL NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

1 2
2 8
3 18
4-7 32
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• An atom is chemically stable when it has 8
electrons in its outermost shell.
• Hydrogen and Helium which are chemically
stable when they have 2 electrons in their outer
shell.

• Valence electrons = electrons in the outermost

shell of an atom
- atoms combine with each other by transferring
or sharing valence electrons during chemical
reactions.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Atoms that do not have a full outer shell combine
easily with other atoms
• Atoms that have a full outer shell gererally do not
combine easily or do not combine at all.
• Noble gases, like argon and krypton, are
chemically stable, they do not react readily with
other elements.
• All the noble gases have 8 electrons in their
outer shell.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Generally, elements in a particular column of the
Periodic Table have the same number of
electrons in their outermost shell.
• exceptions are the transition elements, Group
IIIB to IIB, which are metals
- properties are not as consistent or predictable

• The three main sections of elements:

 Representative Elements
 Transition Elements
 Inner Transition Elements
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Representative Elements
• all located in columns with “A” labels i.e. IA, IIA etc

• Some families are composed of elements that

have very similar properties.
• For example, the noble gases (VIIIA) are all
resistant to chemical reactions because their
valence shells are full.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Other families consist of elements that differ in
the ways that they can use their valence
electrons for bonding.
For example:
• silicon (Si),
- member of the IVA family,
- four valence electrons to form covalent bonds.
• lead (Pb), from the same family,
- can lose electrons and become positively
charged as a result of a chemical reaction.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Alkali metals (IA)

• lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium

and francium.
Hydrogen - will be discussed separately.

• one valence electron which is easily transferred

in chemical reactions.
Although these elements have similar properties
they are not identical.
differ in physical properties like density and they
react at different rates.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Alkaline earth metals (IIA)

• beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium,

barium and radium.
• They are not as reactive as the alkali metals
because more energy is required to remove two
electrons from them.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Halogens (VIIA)
• fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. -
- halogens are non-metals
- seven valence electrons.
• When these elements form compounds they gain
one electron to fill their outermost shell.
• halogens are all very reactive, and they combine
easily with most metals to form salts.
• Halogens aslo combine with carbon & other non-
metals to form covalent compounds
eg carbon tetrachloride -common laboratory
solvent.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Hydrogen
• can react in two different ways.
• acts like an alkali metal when it transfers its one
electron to another atom
• acts like a halogen when it gains an electron
from another atom.

• hydrogen acts like a halogen - eg it can form

covalent bonds with carbon (CH4).
-in most compounds hydrogen acts like a typical
non-metal.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

• However, hydrogen ions are produced whenever

certain compounds, such as ascorbic acid are
dissolved in water.
• Compounds that yield ions when they are
dissolved in water are called acids.
• - a solution of hydrogen chloride and water is
called hydrochloric acid.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Transition elements:

• It is difficult to predict how the transition elements

will use their electrons to form bonds or which
electrons will behave like valence electrons.
• all are metals - none as reactive with non-metals
as Grp IA and IIA families.

• many serve as catalysts for chemical reactions

• Catalyst can make a reaction occur faster, but
the catalyst itself is not permanently changed.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Inner transition elements

• Lanthanide series -atomic number 58 to 71.

• Actinide series, goes from atomic number 90 to
107.

• If the Periodic Table was completely laid out

according to increasing atomic number, the
Lanthanide series would be placed immediately
after lanthanum and the Actinide series would be
placed immediately after actinium.
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS
• Physical properties of the members of the
Lanthanide series are, with few exceptions,
almost identical.
• Chemical behaviour is also very similar.
• Actinide series elements have a greater contrast
in properties than the Lanthanide elements.
• In general, Actinide series elements are
radioactive.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Chemical reaction  the interaction between

atoms.
• involves the transferring of valence electrons
from one atom to another, or the sharing of
valence electrons between two or more atoms.

• Bonding between elements takes place during

chemical reactions and a number of different
types of bonds can develop.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Ionic bonding
• Ionic bonds are usually formed by atoms that
readily give up electrons and atoms that readily
accept electrons.
• Metals on the left side of the Periodic Table
usually have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer
shell.
• When a metal is involved in a chemical reaction,
it readily gives up the electron in its outer shell.
The next shell then becomes the outer shell with
a complete set of 8 electrons.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• When an atom loses an electron it becomes

positively charged as there will be more protons
than electrons. When an atom gains an electron
it becomes negatively charged.
• Atoms that gain or lose electrons are called ions.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• When a sodium atom combines with a chlorine
atom to form a sodium chloride molecule, the
sodium atom gives up (transfers) the single
electron in its outer shell to become a positive
ion, a Cation.
• The chlorine atom gains the electron and
becomes a negative ion, an Anion.
• The difference in charges cause the two ions to
be attracted to each other and form an ionic
bond.
• The overall sodium chloride (NaCl) molecule is
neutral.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Calcium has two electrons in its outer shell and

when it combines with chlorine, one calcium
atom reacts with two chlorine atoms.
• The calcium atom gives up one electron to each
of the chlorine atoms and gains a 2+ charge,
while each chlorine atom takes on a 1- charge.
• The positively charged calcium ion is attracted to
the two negative chlorine ions and the compound
calcium chloride (CaCl2) is formed.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Chemical formulae

• Symbols are used for writing chemical formulae

e.g. the chemical formula for sodium chloride is
NaCl.
• The chemical formula also indicates how many
atoms there are for each element.
• For sodium chloride, one atom of sodium
combines with one atom of chlorine.
• However, atoms do not always combine on a
one-to-one basis.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• When hydrogen and oxygen combine to form
water, two hydrogen atoms combine with one
atom of oxygen.
- The valence of hydrogen is +1 and the valence
of oxygen is -2.
• To result in an overall valence of zero, there
must be two +1 hydrogen atoms to balance the -
2 oxygen atom. The number of atoms of each
element is indicated by a subscript. Thus the
chemical formula for water is H2O.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• The following three step process is used when
writing a chemical formula:

• (1) Write the symbol for each element in the

compound.
• (2) Write the valence of each element to the right
of the symbol.
• (3) Determine the number of atoms of each
element needed to make up the compound.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Example: Determine the chemical formula for aluminium
oxide.

• (1) Write the symbol for the metal first and the non-metal
second.
• Al O
• (2) Write the valences in the form of superscripts.
• Al+3 O-2
• (3) The smallest whole number that can be divided evenly
by 3 and 2 is 6.

• Divide the valences of Al and O into 6 to determine the

number of atoms in the compound.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• The chemical formula is therefore:

• Al2 O3

• Two atoms of aluminium react with three atoms

of oxygen to form aluminium oxide.

• The valence numbers are used to determine how

the elements combine and are not written as part
of the chemical formula.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• To determine how elements combine can

become complicated because many elements
have more than one valence.

• eg, sulphur and oxygen can combine to form

sulphur dioxide (SO2) or sulphur trioxide (SO3).

• The valence of oxygen is -2 in both cases,

whereas the valence for sulphur is +4 in the case
of SO2 and +6 in the case of SO3.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Valence Numbers

• When atoms combine they give up, take in or

share electrons in their outer shells.
• The number of electrons in the outer shell are
the number of electrons involved in a chemical
reaction.
• The valence number expresses the number of
electrons involved when an atom reacts
chemically and whether the electrons are given
up or accepted.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• eg, sodium has one electron in its outer shell and

it gives it up in a chemical reaction.
- valence number for sodium is +1.
- calcium gives up 2 electrons, its valence
number is +2.
• Oxygen usually accepts 2 electrons so its
valence number is -2.
• Therefore, a plus sign indicates that electrons
are given up while a minus sign indicates that
electrons are accepted.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• The valence of an element can be determined
from the Periodic Table.
• The valence for Group I is +1,
• the valence for Group IIA is +2
• and the valence for Group IIIB is +3.
• The valence for Group VIIA is -1,
• for Group VIA is -2
• and for Group VA is -3.
• There are exceptions to these rules, but this
method for determining valences of these six
groups is usually reliable.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Covalent Bonding
• usually occurs when elements are chemically
alike i.e. elements that are closer together in the
Periodic Table.
• involves the sharing of electrons between atoms.
- As electrons are shared and not transferred,
there is no charge on the atoms involved in the
reaction.
• The molecule that is formed as a result of
covalent bonding is also neutral.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Example:
• Each hydrogen atom has one electron in its outer
shell.
• Since the shell of a hydrogen atom needs two
electrons to be complete, a single hydrogen
atom is not chemically stable.
• When two hydrogen atoms share their electrons,
however, each atom effectively has two electrons
in its outer shell.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• A hydrogen molecule (H2) is known as a

diatomic molecule.
• Most elements that are gases, except the noble
gases which are chemically unreactive, occur as
diatomic molecules.
• Examples :
Nitrogen (N2),
Oxygen (O2),
Fluorine (F2) and
Chlorine (Cl2).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Other examples of covalent bonding are

compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
• Methane (CH4) has one carbon and 4 hydrogen
atoms.
• Carbon atoms also form chains of carbon known
as hydrocarbons.
• One simple hydrocarbon is butane which has 4
carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• With covalent bonding, electrons are shared

instead of being transferred.
• Therefore, there is no charge on the atoms
involved in the reaction.
• The molecule that is formed as a result of
covalent bonding is also neutral.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Covalent bonding can result in some unique
characteristics.
• When two neutral hydrogen atoms and one
neutral oxygen atom combine, they form a
molecule of water (H2O).
• Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron
so there are two hydrogen valence electrons
available for sharing. The oxygen atom has six
valence electrons.
• The three atoms combine by sharing the eight
electrons and form a covalent bond.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• The water molecule is also neutral, however one

side of the molecule is positive and the other
side is negative.
• The hydrogen atoms are on one side and oxygen
on the other.
• As oxygen has a greater tendency to attract
electrons, they are pulled more towards the
oxygen atom.
- This results in the oxygen side becoming more
negative than the hydrogen side.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Molecules that exhibit equal and opposite

charges on opposite sides are called polar
molecules.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Ionic Groups

• In some chemical compounds, both ionic and

covalent bonds exist at the same time.
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an example of such
a compound which is made up of a sodium atom
(Na) and a hydroxide molecule (OH).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• The hydroxide molecule consists of one
hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom held
together by a covalent bold.
• The bond between the sodium atom and the
hydroxide molecule is an ionic bond because
sodium hydroxide is made up of a positive
sodium ion and a negative hydroxide ion.
• Ions which are made up of molecules, e.g.
hydroxide, are called ionic groups or radicals.
Most ionic groups are negatively charged, but a
few are positively charged.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• When ionic groups combine with other atoms or

molecules, they react as if they were single
atoms.
• Ionic groups have valencies that indicate how
many electrons the group gives up or takes in
during a chemical reaction.
• The hydroxide group has a valence of -1 and
combines with Na which has a valence of +1.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Another example is sodium phosphate.

• The phosphate group (PO4) is a negative ionic
group that has a valence of -3.
• As the sodium atom has a valence of +1,
• three sodium atoms are needed to form the
compound.
• The formula is Na3PO4.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• IONIC GROUP FORMULA VALENCE
• Ammonium NH4 +1
• Bicarbonate HCO3 -1
• Carbonate CO3 -2
• Hydroxide OH -1
• Nitrate NO3 -1
• Nitrite NO2 -1
• Phosphate PO4 -3
• Silicate SiO3 -2
• Sulphate SO4 -2
• Sulphite SO3 -2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Chemical Equations
• Chemical reactions are often expressed in the
form of equations.
• The elements or compounds that combine are on
one side of the equation and the compounds that
are formed are on the other side.
• The fire in a boiler is one example of a chemical
reaction.
• We can express this simply by saying that the
carbon and hydrogen in the fuel combine with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and heat.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• The chemical equation is:
• C + H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O + E
• The arrow indicates the direction in which the
reaction is going and points to the products that
are formed.
• The equation states that one atom of carbon,
one diatomic molecule of hydrogen and one
diatomic molecule of oxygen combine to form
one molecule of carbon dioxide, one molecule of
water and heat energy.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• The next step is to balance the equation to ensure
that the same number of atoms occur on both
sides.

• C + 2H2 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O + E

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Examples:

• 2Cu + 2HNO3  2CuNO3 + H2 

• Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2  2CaCO3  +

2H2O

• Na2CO3 + H2O  2NaOH + CO2 

WATER CHEMISTRY

• Water chemistry is a science that deals with the

properties of water and the changes that certain
substances go through when they are exposed
to water.
• This section will cover elements that make up
water, how these elements react with other
elements and what happens when water mixes
with other substances.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Types of Chemical Reactions
• Elements and compounds react in different ways
to form new substances and each of these will
be covered separately.
• Direct Combination Reactions
• Two or more separate reactants combine to form
a single reaction product.
• CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
• When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, the
product is carbonic acid.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Single Displacement Reactions
• The reactants are an element and a compound and
during the reaction, the element replaces one of the
elements in the compound.
• 2Cu + 2HNO3  2CuNO3 + H2 
• When a piece of copper (Cu) is placed into Nitric Acid
(HNO3), the copper replaces the hydrogen in the nitric
acid.
As a result, copper nitrate (CuNO3) and hydrogen (H2) is
formed. The copper is tied up in the bond that forms
copper nitrate, while the hydrogen is freed.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• A common single displacement reaction that is
used to advantage in a power plant is the
reaction that takes place between oxygen and
hydrazine.

• 2N2H4 + 2O2  4H2O + 2N2 

WATER CHEMISTRY
• At Koeberg, hydrazine (N2H4) is added to water
to minimise corrosion caused by oxygen.
• When hydrazine and oxygen combine in a single
displacement reaction, the oxygen is tied up in
the bond that forms water, and the nitrogen is
freed as a gas.
• The nitrogen gas will not cause corrosion.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Decomposition Reaction
• In this reaction, a compound breaks down into
the compounds or elements that formed it. These
reactions usually occur under the influence of an
outside energy source e.g. light or heat.
• eg is when hydrazine breaks down into
ammonium (NH4) and nitrogen.
• 2N2H4  2NH4 + N2 
WATER CHEMISTRY

• Hydrazine can be used to control corrosion, but

only at temperatures below 518oF.
• At temperatures above 518oF, hydrazine breaks
down into ammonium and nitrogen, so it is no
longer effective for reacting with oxygen.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Double Displacement Reaction
• The two reactants are compounds. During the
reaction, one element from each compound joins
with one element from the other compound to
form two new compounds.
• K2SO4 + BaCl2  BaSO4 + 2KCl
• When potassium sulphate (K2SO4) is mixed with
barium chloride (BaCl2), the elements potassium
and barium dissociate from their respective
compounds.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The barium bonds with the sulphate to form
barium sulphate (BaSO4), and the potassium
bonds with the chloride to form potassium
chloride (KCl).
• Each of the original compounds has transferred
an element to the other compound.
• The result of the reaction is two new compounds.
WATER CHEMISTRY

• An example of this reaction that is used in power

plants is when sodium bicarbonate is added to
water to remove calcium sulphate impurities that
could form scale.
• 2Na(HCO3) + CaSO4  CaCO3  +
Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 
WATER CHEMISTRY
• In this double displacement reaction, sodium
bicarbonate, Na(HCO3) reacts with calcium
sulphate (CaSO4).
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which will form a
precipitate under the right conditions, sodium
sulphate (NaSO4), water and carbon dioxide are
produced.
• The precipitate that is formed can easily be
filtered out of the water, thus removing the
calcium sulphate impurities
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Reactions of oxygen

• Many of the chemical reactions that occur in a

power plant take place in water.
• Hydrogen and oxygen, the elements that make
up water, play an important part in most of these
reactions.
• Each of these elements will be discussed
separately.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The atomic structure of oxygen
• Oxygen is located in group VIA in the Periodic
Table.
• It is a non-metal and it usually accepts electrons
during a chemical reaction.
• Oxygen normally has a valence of -2.
• The atomic number of oxygen is 8, because the
nucleus of a typical oxygen atom contains 8
protons.
• The 8 electrons that orbit the nucleus are
arranged in 2 shells
WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Reactions involving oxygen
• The most common type is a redox reaction.
Several reactions of this type take place when
fuel is burned i.e. combustion.
• The reactions that occur during combustion
release energy so rapidly that flame and light are
produced and a large quantity of heat.
• One reaction that takes place during combustion
involves carbon, a primary constituent of fuel.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• In this reaction one carbon atom reacts with two
oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide gas. This
reaction is both a redox and a direct combination
reaction.
• C + O2  CO2
• During combustion, oxygen also reacts with
sulphur and sulphur dioxide is produced. This
reaction is also a redox reduction (oxygen is
reduced and sulphur is oxidized) and a direct
combination reaction.
• S + O2  SO2
WATER CHEMISTRY
• In addition to reacting with non-metals such as
carbon and sulphur, during combustion, oxygen
also reacts in other situations with metals.
• For example, iron oxide (rust) is formed when
oxygen reacts with iron.
• There are actually two types of iron oxide. One
type causes deterioration of boiler tubes which
can lead to tube failure, while the other type
actually helps protect the tubes.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Reactions of hydrogen
• Hydrogen is the other element that combines
with oxygen to form water.
• The atomic structure of hydrogen
• Hydrogen is the first element listed in the
Periodic Table and it occurs in Group IA.
• The other elements in this group are metals.
• Chemically, hydrogen usually acts like a metal,
but it is actually a gas.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The valence for Group IA elements is usually +1.
The valence of hydrogen can be either +1 or -1.
During a chemical reaction, a hydrogen atom can
either give up an electron or accept an electron.

• The atomic number of hydrogen is 1 because the

nucleus of a hydrogen atom contains 1 proton.
There is one electron orbiting the nucleus.
• Since the hydrogen atom has only one electron
in its outer shell, it is not chemically stable.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• To become chemically stable, a hydrogen atom
must have two electrons in its outer shell.
• Thus, hydrogen atoms often share electrons and
form diatomic molecules, H2.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Reactions involving hydrogen
• When hydrogen reacts with a metal, the bonds
that are formed are usually ionic.
• Both the metal and the hydrogen become ions.
• The hydrogen ion is usually called a hydride ion,
and the compound that is formed is usually
called a metallic hydride.
• In the reaction below, one atom of calcium bonds
ionically with two atoms of hydrogen to form a
molecule of calcium hydride.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• In this reaction, calcium has a valence of +2.
Since the calcium atom gives up an electron to
each hydrogen atom, the valence of hydrogen is
-1.
• Ca + H2  CaH2
• When hydrogen reacts with a non-metal, the
bonds that are formed are usually covalent.
• The compound formed in the following example
is called hydrogen bromide.
• H + Br  HBr
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The Water Molecule
• When hydrogen reacts with oxygen, the reaction
product is water.
• 2H2 + O2  2H2O

• A single molecule of water is composed of two

hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
• The hydrogen atoms share their electrons with
the oxygen atom and covalent bonds are formed
WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The arrangement of the atoms in a water
molecule makes it polar.
• One side of the molecule is positive and the
other is negative, even though the overall
molecule is neutral.
• This polarity makes water an excellent solvent.
• A solvent is a substance that causes other
substances to dissolve.
WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Most ionically bonded compounds act like
sodium chloride when they are placed in water.
• The compound separates into its individual ions,
and the ions are distributed evenly throughout
the water.
• The combination that is formed, when a
substance such as sodium chloride dissolves in
water, is called a solution.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Solutions
• Solutions that contain water play an important
part in many of the chemical reactions that take
place in plant systems.
• Solutions are made by dissolving one substance
into another.
• The substance that is dissolved is called the
solute and the water is the solvent.
• The solute in a solution cannot be filtered out as
it is completely dissolved.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Factors that affect how much of a substance
dissolves
• polar characteristics
 temperature
 size of solid solutes
 agitation of solution

• When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the

molecule is easily pulled apart by the water
molecules. Due to their polarity it dissolves
easily.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The effect of temperature depends on the state
of the solute i.e. solid, liquid or gas.
• If the solute is a gas, more of it can be dissolved
in a cold liquid than a hot liquid because gases
come out of solution when heated.
• Thus an increase in temperature decreases the
solubility of gas in a liquid.
• If the solute is a solid, more will dissolve as
temperature increases.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Size affects how quickly a solid dissolves.
• Larger solids dissolve slower than smaller solids.
• For example, granulated sugar will dissolve
faster than sugar cubes.
• Small particles dissolve faster because there is
more surface area for the solvent to act on.

• Stirring or agitating a solution helps the solute to

dissolve faster.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Characteristics of Solutions

• These depend on the substances that make up a

solution and the amount of each substance that
is present.
• For example, the freezing point and the boiling
point of a solution will vary according to the
amount of solute present.
WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER CHEMISTRY
• The amount of solute in a solution also
determines the concentration of the solution.
• As more solute is added, the concentration of the
solution increases.
• However, there is a limit to the amount of solute
that a solvent can hold.
• This limit is different for each solution; it depends
on what the solute and the solvent are.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• A solution is dilute when only a very small
amount of solute is added to a solvent.
• The amount of solute is much less than the
maximim amount that the solvent can hold.
• The solution becomes concentrated as more
solute is added, until the amount of solute is
close to the maximim amount that the solvent
can hold.
• A solution that holds the maximum amount of
solute is a saturated solution.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Electrolytes
• An electrolyte is a non-metallic conductor of
elelctricity in which current is carried by ions.
Electrolytes can react with metals to cause
corrosion.

• Sugar water does not conduct electricity

• while pure water conducts electricity very weakly
• solution of sodium chloride is an excellent
electrolyte because it contains ions.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Electrolytes and the ions they contain are
important in the study of chemical reactions in the
plant because they can cause corrosion when
they come into contact with metals.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Acids, alkalis and salts
• Acids

• Acids contain hydrogen ions.

• The strength of an acid is determined by its
hydrogen ion concentration:
-the more hydrogen ions, the stronger the acid.
• Strong acids react more vigorously with other
elements and compounds than weak acids do,
and they are also more corrosive.
WATER CHEMISTRY

• An example of a strong acid is sulphuric acid. It

has a high concentration of hydrogen ions and it
reacts readily to cause corrosion.
• Carbonic acid is an example of a weak acid.
-It has a low concentration of hydrogen ions and
it is not nearly as corrosive as sulphuric acid.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Alkalis

• They contain hydroxide (OH) ions.

• The strength of an alkali is determined by its
concentration of hydroxide ions.
• The more OH ions, the stronger the alkali.
• An example of a strong alkali is sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is an example of
a weak alkali.
 pH
• pH is a numerical expression of the nature of solutions
indicating:-
Acidity
Basicity [alkaline], or
Neutrality
+ Sorenson, the Swede, drew up a simple scale
Representing very low H+ and OH- ion
concentrations as the negative logarithms of the
concentrations.
• He called it the pH-scale ["p" comes from “potenz”
(power), "H" from H+].
 pH
• The strength of an acid or alkali is usually
expressed in terms of a number value on the pH
scale.
• The numbers range from 0 to 14 where 7 indicates
a neutral solution i.e. neither an acid or an alkali.
• Numbers less than 7 indicate acid solutions and
the lower the number, the stronger the acid.
• Numbers greater than 7 indicate alkaline solutions
and the higher the number, the stronger the alkali.
pH
WATER CHEMISTRY
• Salts
• An acid and an alkali can be mixed so that the
pH of the solution formed is 7 [neutral solution].

• The chemical reaction that takes place between

an acid and an alkali results in the formation of
water and a salt.
• A salt is an ionically bonded compound that is
composed of a metal and a non-metal.
WATER CHEMISTRY
• hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)
• HCl + NaOH  NaCl + HOH

• double displacement reaction

• hydrogen and sodium replace each other
• The fact that acids and alkalis form neutral
solutions can be used to advantage in certain
plant situations.
WATER CHEMISTRY

• Water is normally neutral, but it can become acid

or alkali after flowing through some plant
processes.
• Before water from the plant is returned to its
natural source, it is treated to make it neutral
again.
• If the water is acidic, an alkali is mixed with it; if it
is alkaline, an acid is mixed with it.
WATER CHEMISTRY

• Water is normally neutral, but it can become acid

or alkali after flowing through some plant
processes.
• Before water from the plant is returned to its
natural source, it is treated to make it neutral
again.
• If the water is acidic, an alkali is mixed with it; if it
is alkaline, an acid is mixed with it.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• The water that is pumped into a power plant

comes from sources such as lakes or rivers.
• This raw water cannot be used as it comes from
the source, because it contains impurities that
can cause corrosion and other problems to plant
equipment.
• Therefore, raw water must be treated before it
can be used in the plant.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• Concentration
• Impurities in raw, untreated, water exist as
suspended solids, dissolved solids & dissolved
gases.

• Suspended solids are impurities that do not

dissolve- eg dirt and mud and they make water
appear cloudy.
• Turbidity is a measure of how clear a liquid is.
• Suspended solids are often removed by filtration
and clarification.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• Dissolved solids are compounds that are

dissolved in a solvent.
- include salts like magnesium sulphate and
calcium carbonate.
- removed by lime softening and ion exchange.

• Dissolved gases are gases that dissolve in water

- most common are oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- removed in the condenser and the deaerator.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• Unless the water in the power plant is treated to

remove impurities, they will tend to form deposits
or cause corrosion.
• Suspended and dissolved solids cause deposits
to form on the inside of tubes.
• These deposits are called scale and they
insulate the tubes.
-This could cause them to overheat.
• Dissolved gases are a major cause of corrosion.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• The concentration of impurities is a factor in

determining how much damage the impurities
can do to a plant’s equipment.
• Concentration describes the amount of a
substance in a solution.
• described as mg X/kg or µg X/kg.
• units are based on weight and they refer to the
weight of a solute, X, in the weight of a solvent,
water.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• The concentration of impurities can be analysed

in the laboratory
• this is time consuming
• conductivity is used to give an an immediate
indication of the impurities
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
• Equilibrium - of a solution is a state of balance
between two concentrations.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
• When the molecules in a solution reach
equilibrium they do not stop interacting with each
other.
• eg, when a solid like salt is added to water, it
dissolves quickly at first.
• As more salt is added, its concentration in the
water increases causing it to dissolve more
slowly.
• Finally, a point is reached where it is no longer
possible to dissolve any more salt.
• This point, called the saturation point, is also the
equilibrium point.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• What happens in a saturated solution of salt and

water ????
• An undissolved salt crystal is surrounded by
sodium and chloride ions.
• The salt crystal dissolves by dissociating and
breaking into sodium and chloride ions in
solution.
• at equilibrium, a sodium & choride ion in solution
are attracted to the crystal.
• ions take the place of the molecule that just left.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• As soon as the crystal begins to dissolve, ions in

solution attach to the crystal so that the crystal is
constantly changing, but the number of atoms in
the crystal and in the water remain constant.
• The salt comes out of solution at the same rate
at which it dissolves.
• As long as the salt solution remains at
equilibrium, the molecules continue dissolving
into solution as salt molecules.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• Although the chemical solution is in a state of

balance, individual molecules and ions are
continuously changing.
• This illustrates the fact that the state of
equilibrium is a moving, dynamic, state.
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• Equilibrium of Chemical Reactions

• The concept of equilibrium applies to chemical

reactions as well as to solutions.
• Chemical reactions are equilibrium processes.
The following equation shows the reaction
between oxygen and hydrazine.

• O2 + N2H4 N2 + 2 H2O
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS

• If the concentrations of oxygen and hydrazine

are equal, almost all the oxygen and hydrazine
can react. Very little hydrazine and oxygen would
remain.
• In some reactions, there will be large amounts of
reactants present after the reaction is complete.
• In some plants, disodium phosphate is added to
the boiler. It reacts with sodium hydroxide in
order to control pH.
• Na2HPO4 + NaOH  Na3PO4 + H2O
WATER TREATMENT CONCEPTS
 CORROSION

Defn:
The deterioration of a substance as it reacts
with its environment

Corrosion occurs in 2 ways:

Uniform: Entire metal surface is corroded

Localised attack: Part of the metal surface is

corroded eg pitting
CONCLUSION:

• Basic Chemistry concepts play an important role

in maintaining the long term integrity of the plant
at Koeberg.
• Operating experience has shown that Basic
Chemistry knowledge and understanding is
important to all staff.
• Lack of Chemistry knowledge can sometimes
lead to critical errors that may impact on on
personal conventional and even nuclear safety
 Introduction to Radiochemistry

Defn: Radiochemistry
The science of detecting nuclear radiation, both
qunantitatively and qualitatively
Defn: Nuclides:
Atoms with specific nuclear characteristics, uniquely
described by the number of protons and neutrons in their
nuclei.
Defn: Radioactive Decay:
Characteristic of all unstable nuclides, involves
spontaneous transformation of the nucleus with the
emission of mass/energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves, resulting in the transformation of one element into
another.
3 types of radiation: α, β, γ
Units denoting energy of radiation: MeV; KeV

α β γ/x
Has mass High speed similar to light
electrons & radiowaves

Positive Originate in Much shorter 

charge nucleus
2 p+ ; 2 n0 = He
Rate of radioactive decay:

Rate at which substances decay = transformation

rate or sensitivity, and this depends on the number of
unstable nuclei.

Half life:
Time taken for the activity of a radionuclide to
decrease to half the initial radioactivity. The half -life
is characteristic of that nuclide.