UNIT-III Geometric Modeling

Unit-III
Geometric Modeling
Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

SNIST 1
UNIT-III
 Geometric Modeling : Requirements of geometric

modeling, wire frame modeling entities, curve
representation methods, surface modeling entities, solid
modeling ,B- rep, CSG rep modeling facilities desired.
 Drafting and Modeling systems: Basic Geometric
commands, layers, display control commands, editing
commands and dimensioning

SNIST 2
Geometric Modeling
 Geometric models are computational (symbol)
structures that capture the spatial aspects of the
objects of interest for an application.
 The process of constructing a complete

mathematical description (geometric database) to
model a physical entity or system called
geometric modeling

SNIST 3
 Simply means that design concepts are digitally inputted into
software
 Displays them in either 2-D or 3-D forms.
 A general term applied to 3-D computer-aided design

techniques.

SNIST 4
SNIST 5
Geometric modeling is concerned with the computer
compatible mathematical description of the geometry of an
object
The mathematical description allows the image of the object to

be displayed and manipulated on a graphic terminal through
the signals from the CPU of the CAD system.

SNIST 6
Requirement Of Geometric Modeling :
 The concept of the product need to present it in a
relevant form for the manufacturing engineer.
 To avoid large amount of duplication of work .
 It becomes a central part that will be manipulated at all
stages.
 Provides good understanding of terminology in
CAD/CAM field and system documentation.
 It interprets any unexpected results encountered from
using CAD/CAM system.
 Evaluation of CAD/CAM system becomes easy.

SNIST 7
 Produce an appropriate database used for input into specialized
engineering software tools to perform tasks in an integrated
design sequence.
 Support the move to a seamless work environment where the

flow of data is continuous and need not recreated at each stage
of design development.

SNIST 8
Properties of Geometric Modeling
 Configuration of solid must invariant
 Solid must occupy only a finite shape
 The application of a transformation or other

operation must produce another solid
 The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify

interior and external surface

SNIST 9
Types of Geometric Modeling
 Wire frame Modeling
– Points and Lines
 Surface Modeling
– Adding a surface
to 3D Wireframe
 Solid Modeling
– Constructive Solid Geometry
 Assembling primitive solids
by adding or subtracting

SNIST 10
1) 2D modeling: Used for the flat object
2) 2 ½ D goes for some what beyond the 2D capability by

permitting a three dimensional object to represented as long
as it has no side details.
3) 3D modeling allows for full of a more complex geometry

SNIST 11
Wire frame Model
 Wire frame referred to as a stick figure or edge
representation of the object.
 The Word “Wire frame” is related to the fact that one may
imagine a wire that is bend to follow the object edges to
generate the model

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Advantages of Wire frame Modeling:
1) It does not require as much computer time and
memory as does surfaces or solid modeling.
2) It is a natural extension of traditional methods
of drafting.
3) It does not require extensive training of users.
4) The CPU time require is usually small compared
to solid or surface modeling.

SNIST 14
Disadvantages of Wire frame Modeling:
1) These models are usually ambiguous representations of real
objects
2) Ambiguous surfaces limit the automation possibilities (e.g.
no volume calculation, no NC tool path generation)
3) Complex design having many edges become very confusing
even impossible to interpret.
4) Lack of visual coherence
5. The input time is substantial and increases rapidly with the
complexity of the object
6. Both topological and geometric data need to be user-input;
7.Unless the object is two-and-a-half dimensional, volume and
mass properties, NC tool path generation, cross-sectioning,
and interference cannot be calculated.
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SNIST 16
Wire frame Entities:
1) Analytical Entities
2) Synthetic Entities
Method of defining Points:
i) Absolute Cartesian co-ordinates
ii) Incremental Cartesian co-ordinates
iii) Absolute cylindrical co-ordinates
iv) Incremental cylindrical co-ordinates

SNIST 17
Method of
Defining Points

SNIST 18
Method of
Defining Line

SNIST 19
Lines: d2
P3(x3,y3,z3)
P2(x2,y2,z2) d3 P5(x5,y5,z5)
d4
d1
P4(x4,y4,z4)
P1(x1,y1,z1)
d1= √(x2-x1)2 +(y2-y1)2 + (z2-z1)2

SNIST 20
Method of
Defining Circles

SNIST 21
Circle:
P(x,y)
r
θ
(xc,yc)
(x-xc)2+(y-yc)2 = r2

SNIST 22
Circular arc:
i) Radius or Diameter and Centre for circle,
beginning and ending angles θ1 and θ2 for Arc.
r
θ2
θ1
ii) Three points defined by any method of points.

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Method of
defining Conics

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Representations of Curves
 Problems with series of points used to model a
curve
 Piecewise linear - Does not accurately model a smooth
line
 It’s tedious
 Expensive to manipulate curve because all points must
be repositioned
 Instead, model curve as piecewise-polynomial

SNIST 25
Specifying Curves
 Control Points
 A set of points that influence the
curve’s shape
 Knots
 Control points that lie on the curve

SNIST 26
• Interpolating Splines
Curves that pass through the control points
(knots)
• Approximating Splines
Control points merely influence shape
Multiple values :
A curve is not a graph of a single valued
function to a co ordinate irrespective of the
choice of the co-ordinate system

SNIST 27
Global or Local control: A curve may change
shape locally in the region near to the control
points .
It may change through out (globally ) ie.
through out length of the curve
Axis Independent The shape of the object must
not change when the control points are measured
in a different co ordinate system

SNIST 28
Curve Representation:
1) Non –parametric representation
2) Parametric Representation
 Explicit functions:
 In non-parametric curve, the coordinates ‘y’ and ‘z’ of a
point on the curve are expressed as two separate functions
of third coordinate ‘x’.
 y = f(x), z = g (x) or P= [x, y, z] T = [x, f (x), g (x) ]T

 Where P position vector of the point P

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 For every ‘x’ value there will be only one ‘y’ and ‘z’ value
 This form can not be used to represent closed ( circles) or multi
valued curves (parabola).
 Implicit equations:
 If the coordinates ‘x’ , ‘y’ and ‘z’ are related together
( intersection) by to functions (surfaces) a non-parametric

implicit form of curve results
 f(x,y,z) = 0
 g(x,y,z) = 0
 equation may have more solutions than we want
 problem to join curve segments together

SNIST 30
Limitations of non-parametric curves:
1) If the slope of the curve at a point is vertical near vertical , its

value becomes infinity or very large.
2) Both implicit and explicit non- parametric curves are axis
dependent
3) Points on the non-parametric curve are at equal increments in x
and y axis.
4) If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight
line segments the computations involved could be extensive.

SNIST 31
Parametric curves
 Parametric representation:
 x = x(u), y = y(u), z = z (u)
 Where u = forth parameter. This parameter acts as a

local co ordinates for point on the curve
 overcomes problems with explicit and implicit forms
 no geometric slopes (which may be infinite)
 parametric tangent vectors instead (never infinite)
 a curve is approximated by a piecewise polynomial curve

SNIST 32
or
P (u) = [x, y, z] T
= [ x (u) , y (u), z (u) ] T
where u min.< u < u max.
The above equation implies that the co-ordinates of a point on

the curve are the components of its position vectors

SNIST 33
SNIST 34
Advantages of Parametric curves
1) Geometrical transformations can be performed directly on
parametric equations
2) Parametric geometry can be easily expressed in terms of

vectors and matrices.
3) Parametric curves are inherently bonded , no additional

geometric data is required to define boundaries
4) Better suited for display by the special graphics devices.

SNIST 35
Synthetic curves
• Synthetic curves also called free form curves, since they can
be designed and manipulated as we desire.
• In engineering design analytical curves are not sufficient to
meet geometric design requirements of mechanical parts
such as car bodies , ship hulls aero plane wings , propeller
blades, shoe insoles bottles and biomedical applications.
• Construction of synthetic curves is nothing but fitting a
curve which passes through the given data points.
• Normally these curves are represented by polynomials.

SNIST 36
Major types of Synthetic curves:
 Hermit
 defined by two endpoints and two tangent vectors
 Bezier
 defined by two endpoints and two other points that control the
endpoint tangent vectors
 B-splines : Approximation or interpolation of a given set of points

SNIST 37
Hermite Cubic Splines
• It is one of the simplest synthetic curve which is represented in

parametric form.
•This curve is used to interpolate through the given data points
•Hermite cubic splines are piece wise polynomial curves with a

certain order of continuity.
•A polynomial of degree ‘n’ has continuity of derivatives of
order ( n-1) or n-1 control points.
•The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by
•Where ‘u’ is the parameter Ci is the polynomial coefficients

SNIST 38
The scalar form of the equation is written as
The vector form of equation can be written as
------(i)

SNIST 39
The matrix form of the equation
The tangent vector to the curve at any point is given by
--(ii)

SNIST 40
In order to find the coefficients ci, consider the cubic
spline curve with two end points P0 and P1 applying the
boundary conditions (P0,P01 at u=0 ) ( P1,P11 at u=1) to
the following equation
We get
--------(iii)

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Solving the above four equations simultaneously for
the coefficients gives
------(iv)
Substituting the above in to parametric equation (i)
and rearranging gives
---(v)

SNIST 42
------ (vi)
Hermit cubic curve shape can be controlled by changing the end

points or its tangent vectors

SNIST 43
• Hermit cubic spline curve passes through the end points
( u=0 and u=1) and their tangent vectors
• The curve shape can be controlled by changing the end points or
its tangent vectors
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Draw backs
• Due to its global control characteristics, by changing the

position of a data point, the entire shape of curve changes
•The curve is generally cubic
• The curve is less smoother than other synthetic curves
• Practically the direction and magnitude of the tangent vector

is very difficult to know.

SNIST 45
Bezier Curves
Mathematically, for n+1 control points , Bezier curve is
defined by the following polynomial of degree n:
------- 2.1
P (u) is any point on the curve, Pi is a control point , B i ,n
are the Bernstein polynomials. This polynomial acts as a
basic or blending function

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SNIST 47
Following conventions apply : if ‘i’ and ‘u’ are equal to
zero.
u1 = u and 0! = 1
If there are n+1 vertices then the function B i, u
yields an nth degree polynomial
Expanding equation 2.1 for curves defined by three, four ,
and five points produces the following polynomial forms:
For three points n=2
B 0 ,2 = (1-u)2
B 1, 2 = 2u(1-u)
B 2, 2 = u2

SNIST 48
So that
P(u) = (1-u)2 p0 + 2u (1-u) p1 + u2 p2
For four points n=3
B 0 ,3 = (1-u)3
B 1, 3 = 3u(1-u)2
B 2, 3 = 3u2 (1-u)
B 3, 3 = u3
p (u) = (1-u)3 p0 + 3u (1-u)2 p1 +3 u2 ( 1-u) p2 + u3 p3

SNIST 49
Matrix form of the equation
p0
p (u) = [ (1-3u+3u2-u3) (3u-6u2+3u3) (3u2-3u3) u3 ] p1
p2
p3
OR
-1 3 -3 1 p0
p (u) = [ u3 u2 u 1] 3 -6 3 0 p1
-3 3 0 0 p2
1 0 0 0 p3
SNIST 50
Letting
U = [u3 u2 u 1]
p = [p0 p1 p2 p3] T
-1 3 -3 1
3 -6 3 0
MB = -3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0
We can write this equation more compactly

p (u) = U MB P

SNIST 51
Properties of the Bernstein polynomial
1) The curve interpolates the first and last control points
2) The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the

characteristic polygon.
3) The curve is symmetric w.r.t u and (1-u)
4) The order or degree of Bezier curve is variable and is

related to number of control points defining it ; n+1 points
define an nth degree curve

SNIST 52
5) The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline
6) It contains convex hull properties
p1 p3
Convex hull
p4
p0
-useful in clipping
- curve never oscillates away from the points

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SNIST 54
Problem with Bezier Curves
 To make a long continuous curve with Bezier

segments requires using many segments
 The curve does not pass through the control points

which may be inconvenient to some designer
 It lacks local control
 If one control point changed , the whole curve

changes

SNIST 55
Difference b/w Bezier and Hermit Cubic Curve
Bezier Curve Cubic Spline curve
1) Shape controlled by its 1) Shape controlled by both
defining points only defining points and end
points first derivatives
2) The order or degree of
the curve variable and it is 2) Here the degree is always
related to the no. of points cubic for a spline segment
defining it
3) It is smother because it
3) It is not that smooth
has higher order
derivatives

SNIST 56
Order of continuity:
 C0: two curve segments join together
yields a position continuous curve.
 C1: directions of tangents are equal at the joint
yields a slope continuous curve.
 C2: directions and magnitudes of tangents are
equal at the joint, yields a curvature
continuous curve.

SNIST 57
Tangent
Tangent
Centre of Centre of
Centre of
curvature curvature
curvature
Zero-order continuity first-order continuity
Tangent
Centre of curvature
Second -order continuity

SNIST 58
B-splines
-B-spline provide local control of the of the shape as
opposed to global control by using a special set of
blending functions
-B-spline curves have the ability to interpolate and
approximate a set of given points
-The flexibility in the degree of the resulting curve is
achieved by choosing the blending functions of the B-
spline .
-Ability to add control points without increasing the
degree of curve
SNIST 59
Similar to the Bezier curve B-spline curve also
uses the basic functions and the equation is of the
form
n
p (u) = Σ i=0 p i N i, k (u)
where 0 < u < n-k+2
The parameter k controls the degree k-1of the
resulting B-spline curve and is usually independent
of the control points.
The max. limit of the parameter is no longer unity

SNIST 60
For k= 4 the equation can be written in compact form
as follows
p i (u) = U MS Pi
-1 3 -3 1
,U = [ u3 u2 u 1]
MS = 3 6 3 0
-3 0 3 0
1 4 1 0
p0
Pi = p1
p2
p3 Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,
SNIST 61
Characteristic of B-splines
1) Local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the
position of the control points
2) A non periodic B-spline curve passes through the first and
last control points p0 and pn+1 and is tangent to the first and last
segments of the control polygon
3) Increasing degree of the curve tightens it In general the
lesser the degree the closer the curve gets to the control point
k = 1 zero degree curve results
k = 2 the curve results polygon segments

SNIST 62
If k = (n+1)
then the resulting the B-spline curve becomes a
Bezier curve .
In this case the range of u becomes 0 to 1.
Increasing the degree of the curve makes it more
difficult to control and to calculate accordingly . Hence
there fore cubic.

SNIST 63
SNIST 64
 4) B-splines automatically take care of continuity, with exactly
one control vertex per curve segment
 5) Many types of B-splines: degree may be different (linear,

quadratic, cubic,…) and they may be uniform or non-uniform
 6) With uniform B-splines, continuity is always one degree lower

than the degree of each curve piece
 Linear B-splines have C0 continuity, cubic have C2, etc

SNIST 65
Surface Modeling
Surface model of an object is a more
complete and less ambiguous rep. than its wire
frame model
Advantages over wire frame model:

 Provide hidden line and surface algorithm
 Shading algorithms also available in
surface modeling
 Can be utilized in volume and mass property
calculations, finite element modeling , NC path
generation , cross section & interface details
SNIST 66
Disadvantages over wire frame Modeling:
1) surface modeling does not lend itself to
drafting background.
2) It requires more training and mathematical
background.
3) Requires more CPU time and computer
storage to create than wire frame model
4) require unnecessary manipulations than
wire frame modeling.

SNIST 67
Surface Modeling entities:
1) Analytical Entities:
Plane surfaces , ruled surfaces, surface of
revolution and tabulated surfaces
2) Synthetic Entities:
Bi cubic Hermit spline surfaces, B-spline
surfaces, rectangular and triangular Bezier patches ,
rectangular and triangular coons patches.

SNIST 68
Classification of Surfaces
Planar Surfaces Curved Surfaces Free Form Surfaces
Plane Single Curved Double Curved Coons
Spheres B-Spline
Polygon Cylinders Ellipsoid Bezier
Polyhedron Cones Paraboloid Surface
Torus NURBS
Ruled
Lofted
Surface Surfaces
SNIST 69
Plane surfaces
Ruled surfaces

SNIST 70
Surface of revolution
Tabulated cylinder

SNIST 71
Bezier surface
B-spline surface

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Fillet Surfaces
Offset surfaces

SNIST 73
Surface representation:
Non-parametric equation of the surface is given
By
-------1.1
Normal form of surface rep

SNIST 74
The parametric representation of the surface is
given by
-------1.2

SNIST 75
Parametric Bi- cubic surface
The parametric bi cubic surface patch
connects four corner data points and utilizes a
cubic equation
16 vector conditions or 48 scalar conditions
are required to find the co- efficient of the
equations
- four corner data points
- eight tangent vectors at corner points
- four twist vectors
SNIST 76
Therefore the bi cubic equation can be written as
--------- 1.1
This 16 polynomials in u and v defines the set of all

points lying on the patch and it is the expanded algebraic
form of the bi cubic Hermit patch

SNIST 77
The matrix form , P( u , v) = U T [ C ] V ---------1.3
where 0< u< 1, 0< v < 1
U = [ u3, u2, u, 1]
V = [ v3 , v2, v, 1]
C33 C32 C31 C30
C23 C22 C 21 C 20
C = C13 C12 C11 C10
C03 C02 C01 C00

SNIST 78
By applying boundary conditions in to equation 1.3
And rearranging give the following final equation
of Bi cubic patch
P( u, v ) = U T [ MH ] [ B ] [MH ] T V ------- 1.4
0< u< 1
0< v< 1
Where MH = 2 -2 1 1
-3 3 -2 -1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0

SNIST 79
B , the geometry or boundary condition matrix is
P00 P01 P v00 P v01
P10 P11 Pv10 Pv11
Pu00 Pu01 Puv00 Puv01
B=
Pu10 Pu11 Puv10 Puv11
P Pv
= Pu Puv
Where [P], [Pu], [Pv] and [Puv] are the sub matrices of the
corner points , corner u tangent vectors corner v tangent
vectors and corner twist vectors

SNIST 80
SNIST 81
Bezier Surface
When the Bezier curve is extended in to parametric
directions u and v results in to a Bezier surface
The surface equation of a Bezier curve can be written as
-------- 2.1
Where P( u, v ) is any point on the surface and PiJ

is any control point

SNIST 82
A 4 X 5 order Bezier surface is as shown in figure
below

SNIST 83
The points are arranged in an ( n+1) X (m+1)
rectangular array of the Bezier curve
This equation can be written in the matrix form as
P( u, v ) = UT [MB] [P] [MB] T V --------2.3

SNIST 84
Where subscripts B denotes Bezier and
P00 P01 P02 P03
P10 P11 P12 P13
P = P20 P21 P22 P23
P30 P31 P32 P33
-1 3 -3 1
MB = 3 -6 3 0
-3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0
U= [ u3 u2 u 1] , V= [ v3, v2, v 1]

SNIST 85
B-Spline Surface
B-spline surface can approximate or interpolate the
vertices of the polyhedron
The degree of the surface is independent of the
no.of control points and continuity is automatically
maintained through out the surface by virtue of blending
functions
A B- spline surface patch defined by an (n+1) X
(m+1) array of control points is given by executing in to
two dimensions

SNIST 86
-------3.1
B-Spline surface have the same characteristics

as B-spline curve. Their major advantage over Bezier
surface is local control .
Composite B-spline surface can be generated
with C0 / C1 continuity in the same way as composite
Bezier surface

SNIST 87
Blending one surface to other surface
p ( u, v )
r ( u, v )
q ( u, v )

SNIST 88
Surface Modeling:

SNIST 89

UNIT-III Geometric Modeling

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Unit-III

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Geometric Modeling : Requirements of geometric

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 The process of constructing a complete

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Displays them in either 2-D or 3-D forms.

 A general term applied to 3-D computer-aided design

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

The mathematical description allows the image of the object to

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Evaluation of CAD/CAM system becomes easy.

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Support the move to a seamless work environment where the

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Configuration of solid must invariant

 Solid must occupy only a finite shape

 The application of a transformation or other

 The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

2) 2 ½ D goes for some what beyond the 2D capability by

3) 3D modeling allows for full of a more complex geometry

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

d1= √(x2-x1)2 +(y2-y1)2 + (z2-z1)2

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

ii) Three points defined by any method of points.

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Where P position vector of the point P

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

( intersection) by to functions (surfaces) a non-parametric

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

1) If the slope of the curve at a point is vertical near vertical , its

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 Where u = forth parameter. This parameter acts as a

 no geometric slopes (which may be infinite)

 parametric tangent vectors instead (never infinite)

 a curve is approximated by a piecewise polynomial curve

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

The above equation implies that the co-ordinates of a point on

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

2) Parametric geometry can be easily expressed in terms of

3) Parametric curves are inherently bonded , no additional

4) Better suited for display by the special graphics devices.

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

 B-splines : Approximation or interpolation of a given set of points

Dr.Y.Venkata Narayana, Professor of MED,

• It is one of the simplest synthetic curve which is represented in

•This curve is used to interpolate through the given data points

•Hermite cubic splines are piece wise polynomial curves with a