Volcanic Hazards

SECTION 5.1 LAVA FLOW

• A lava flow or simply lava is a product
of the quiet effusion of molten rock or
magma from beneath a volcano. One
would probably not dare go near a red
hot lava flow or fountain. When a lava f
low comes out of a volcanic vent, its te
mperature ranges from 700 to 1,200°
C. The reason why a lava flow is not w
orrisome to many is its extremely low s
peed.
• It could be 100,000 times as a viscous
as water but lava flows, like those ofte
n seen in Hawaii, travel only very slow
ly. Because of this, lava flows seldom
cause death directly. But when a dom
e that forms from the piling up of lava f
lows near the vent collapses, pyroclas
tic flows form and they are among the
most lethal volcanic hazards.
• Also, what happens when lahars for
m from the melting of the snow by lav
a is another story. Though not directl
y lethal to people, lava flows are har
mful to property and the environment
in any other way. We study lava flow
s not only for the dangers they bring
but also for the wealth of knowledge t
hey give us about the nature and acti
vity of volcanoes.
 Generation of Magma
• Let us review what you have learned fro
m your basic earth science about where
molten rocks and the heat that generate
s these come from. The heat that forms
molten rocks comes from the heat still tr
apped inside the earth which is left over
from the earth's formation 4.6 billion yea
rs ago.
• Some of the heat comes from the sink
ing of the materials that make up the c
ore. The heat from the radioactive dec
ay of elements also contributes to the
heat inside the earth. Partial melting o
f some rocks at depths of about 50-10
0 km due to this heat. Magma and the
lava that comes out of the volcanoes i
n Hawaii are formed from this and are
termed "hot spot" volcanoes.
• Most of the magma and the lava from
volcanoes, however, are formed at pla
te boundaries. The heat in the mantle
forms convection cells that dive the m
otion of tectonic plates. It is during this
motion that basaltic lava comes out of
divergent plate margins of mid-oceani
c ridges.
• Volcanoes also form when a pla
te drives under another plate al
ong convergent boundaries call
ed subduction zones. Still, other
s are formed along transform fa
ult or the so called "leaky transf
orm faults."
Lava Effusion and Explosive E
ruptions
• Some molten materials come out to th
e surface almost unnoticed while other
s come out with a bang. Gas content o
f the magma has something to do with
this (Figure 5.1-2). As magma rises to t
he surface where the pressure is less,
gases dissolved in the magma expand
.
• The volume of gas expands as pres
sure is reduced. Too much gas give
s magmas their explosive character
because of the sudden and tremend
ous expansion of gas volume. While
explosive eruptions that produce fra
gments are called tephra, quite erup
tions create lavas.
• The amount of gas involved in eruption
s determines not only the type of mater
ial that comes out but also the type of l
andform a volcano will be made of. Wh
at happens during an eruption period is
dictated by fluctuations in the accumula
tion and release of gas from the volcani
c system. It is not at all unusual for a v
olcano to display both effusive and viol
ent phases during an eruption cycle.
• The amount of gas involved is depende
nt on the viscosity of magmas, which in
turn depends on the composition and te
mperature of the magma. Magmas with
higher Silica (SiO2) content (andesitic t
o rhyolitic) have higher viscosity than m
agmas with lower silica (SiO2) content (
basaltic to andesitic).
• Viscosity increases with decrea
sing magma temperature. Table
5.1-1 summarizes the depende
nce of gas content on viscosity,
chemical composition, and tem
perature of magma.
 Types of Lava Flow
• Lava flows are probably the most easily
identifiable volcanic deposits. Lava flow
s come in many forms but it takes just a
little effort to recognize these. Once you
see an old lying along the road or at the
slope of a volcano, it is unlikely to confu
se it with another volcanic deposit.
• Its identity and the volcanic hazard it r
epresents is unmistakable. The comp
osition of lava affects the way it flows
and the speed at which it flows as Fig
ure 5.1-3 would indicate. The behavio
r of a lava flow also depends on the sl
ope of the ground over which it travels
and the rate of lava eruption. Would y
ou expect a lava flow that is normally
sluggish on gentle slopes to move fas
ter down on steep slopes?
• Basaltic lava is the fastest flowing lava b
ecause of its relatively low viscosity. It is
usually associated with the broad landfor
ms of shield volcanoes such as those in
Hawaii. Lava flow styles are Pahoehoe a
nd A'a. Pahoehoe is composed of thin flo
ws with smooth surface that sometimes f
eature ropy folds.
• Ropy surface is the result of folding of t
he surface as its inner parts flow contin
ously. Instead of developing a smooth
surface, A'a flows have sharp, spiny s
urfaces. This is the result when the lav
a hardens more quickly than it flows. B
oth Pahoehoe and A'a flow types are a
ssociated with lava fountains.
• Andesitic lava are typically associated with
strato volcanoes an d comnonly form lava d
omes. The volume of andesitic lava is small
, so they do not usually go beyond the foot
of the volcano. Because of their viscous nat
ure, the surface of andesitic flows is compri
sed of smooth-sided fragments. These flow
s are called block lava flows as the surface
fragments are loosely termed blocks.
• Rhyolitic lava flows have relatively highe
r viscosity that is why these are a lot slo
wer than andesitic and basaltic flows. R
hyolites are usually associated with viol
ent eruptions involving pyroclastic flows
and with very steep landforms such as l
ava domes and lava spines. Rhyolitic la
vas flow out of a volcano after the pyrocl
astic flow event.
• Other types of lava include sheet lava
and pillow lava. Sheet flows are thicker
than Pahoehoe and have surface textu
res ranging from ropy to striated. Thes
e are associated with violent eruptions.
Sheet flows usually collapse as a resul
t of the emptying of lava below the har
dened surface.
• Pillow lavas are pillow-shaped rocks f
ormed by the sudden cooling of lava t
hat is deposited underwater. Underse
a volcanoes including mid-oceanic rid
ges are the usual sources of lavas tha
t form pillows. Volcanoes on land may
also directly deposit into water its lava
to be quenched and form pillow lavas.
Effects of Lava Flows: What Makes L
ava Flows so Dangerous
• For its very slow rate of movement, we t
hink of lava flows as non-life threatening
even if these are extremely hot (betwee
n 550°c and 1400°c). Generally, lava
flows travel no more than several kilome
ters per hour. In some places and in ver
y exceptional circumstances, lava flows
do travel very rapidly.
• This was the case when some 300 peo
ple died in Zaire because of a thin lava
flow from Lake Niyergongo sped at rate
s 30-100 km/hr. If you try to go very ne
ar a lava flow, you will probably have y
our skin burnt, eyebrows charred, and
soles of your boots melted. It can take
days to years for a lava flow to complet
ely cool.
• Flows usually do not travel far
from the vent. How far a lava
flow travels depends partly on
viscosity. Viscous lava flow wi
ll not travel far.
•
• Lava flows bring damage or tot
al destruction to land and prop
erty by burying, crushing, or bu
rning everything in their paths.
Lava flows cannot only bury ho
mes and cars but also vegetati
on.
Lava Flow Hazard Zoning: Factors Affecti
ng Volcanic Landforms and Lava Flow Ex
tent
• These are a few important things that g
eologists bear in mind when drawing lav
a flow hazard zones. Aside from consid
ering the viscosity diacussed in earlier s
ections, the morphology (including how
wide it is) and how far a lava flow travel
s depends also on extrusion rate and sl
ope of the land.
• In contrast to the high discharge rates as
sociated with low viscosity basalt lavas,
viscous lavas such as dacite and rhyolite
flows are discharged very slowly becaus
e of high viscosity. These cover only few
square kilometers and take the form of s
hort, stubby lava flows, or steep sided la
va domes.
• Fluid basalt flows will not go very far fro
m a volcano vent on gentle slopes. On st
eep slopes, however, basaltic lava flows
can travel as fast as 10 km/hr. That is w
hy these can reach as far as tens of kilo
meters from the vent. The combination o
f steep slopes and flow along narrow, co
nfined channels makes lava flows rushin
g down at speed of greater than 30 km p
er hour.
• Viscous lava flows on the other hand r
arely go very far from the vent. Andesi
te flows, for example, move very slowl
y (few kilometers per hour) and seldo
m go beyond 8 km from the eruption c
enter. The more viscous dacite and rh
yolite flows are the slowest (less than
3 km per hour) and would rather form
very steep lava domes at or near the
vent rather than spread.
 Mitigating the Effects of Lava
Flows
• The best way of course to avoid the
effects of lava flows is to stay away
from lava flow danger zones. If not,
the problem is in coming up with wa
ys to stop a lava flow from heading
toward your property or the commu
nity.
 SECTION 5.2 VOLCANIC GASES

• SECTION OBJECTIVES:
• 1.Describe the formation and escape to the s
urface of volcanic gases.
• 2.Differentiate the different kinds of Hazardou
s volcanic gases.
• 3.Analyzes the effects of volcanic gases.
• 4.List the various volcanic gas mitigation mea
sures.
• In 1986,a sleepy settlement below lake
Nyos in Cameron (Central Africa), which
sits on top of an old one shot volcano (
mar),fell victim to a silent killer. One witn
ess recalled seeing nobody alive when
he went down to NGOs. Some of them
appeared to have fallen dead while slee
ping or cooking. They seem to Have suf
focated along with all their animal.
• All in all about 1700 people and 3,500 li
vestock died because of this strange ga
s. Some of those who survive smelled g
un powder and had strange marks (burn
s) all over their bodies. Word about the t
ragedy went around quickly. With the nu
mber of casualities, there was no way to
hide it from Everyday's attention. Scienti
es and the survivors at first had no idea
what befelled the dead.
•
• Another key witness narrated that the main cu
lprit was "white like cloth" which did not go up
in the air. From the trail that it had left, it was
soon realized that some kind of toxic gas from
the lake was to blame. What sort of gas could
this be that one cannot see, taste, or smell?
What could have forced such a deadly gas to
come out of the lake? Could something that c
ould be that quiet be so violent and fatal? Wh
at was the smelly, scalding gas that came wit
h it?
•
VOLCANIC GASES GENERATION OR FORM
ATION AND ESCAPE TO THE SURFACE
• Gas is what really makes volcanic eruption work. Ho
w violent an eruption would become depends on a nu
mber of factors discussed earlier in Section 5.1 Mag
ma is composed not only of melted minerals. It also h
as a volatile fraction-- substances that may become g
aseous or give off gases when heated. As magma ris
es toward the surface, these come out of solution in
much the same way as a bubbles of carbon dioxide g
as come out of carbonated drinks.
• The rapid expansion of the gases as magma
rises toward the surface can lead to explosive
eruption (figure 5.1-2). Volcanic gases expan
d enormously when magma rises to the earth'
s surface and erupts. One cubic meter of mag
ma under great pressure at depth can expand
670 times as mixture of water vapor and mag
ma at atmospheric pressure. This tremendou
s expansion of volcanic gases,mainly water, d
rives explosive eruption. Gas bubbles that sur
vive eruption form as vesicles in solidified lav
a. Example of this bubbles expect volcanic ro
cks are scoria and pumice.
• During eruptions, gases are forced out t
hrough the vent along with ash and aero
sol droplets. The gases spread from an
erupting vent primarily as acid rain, sulf
uric acid aerosols, compounds attached
to tephra particles, and microscopic salt
particles (figure 5.2-2). The prevailing wi
nds may blow the eruption cloud as far
ad thousands of kilometers away.
•
• Not only during eruptions are gases rele
ased from magma. Gases are also relea
sed from magma that remains below gr
ound as an intrusion or from magma lur
king just beneath an active volcano duri
ng periods of quiescence (Figure 5.2-3).
Gases may escape continuously into th
e atmosphere from the soil, volcanic ve
nts, fumaroles,and hydrothermal system
s.
• No eruption accompanied the released
of gas from Nyos, but a magma body lyi
ng beneath lake Nyos leaked CO² slowl
y into the water to form volcanic acid. T
he released of a large cloud of CO² on
August 21,1986 is believe to be the resu
lt of a landslide that agitated the lake. T
o prevent a represent of the disaster, tu
bes were installed to allow slow release
of safer quantities of CO².
•
• Other sources of volcanic gas are those
assimilated by the magma from the eart
hs crust on its way up. Crustal materials
may include older volcanic rocks with ga
ses trapped in cavities. Could you also i
magine how groundwater or water from
the atmosphere interacs with magmatic
body at depth or near the surface to for
m Part of volcanic gas?
•
• Figure 5.2.3. The movement of gas from
within the earth's to the surface through
faults in volcanic regions. Source;http://
www.indiana.edu/siera/papers/2007//ma
rks.htmt;Original source: Sorry,Michael
L., Christopher D. Farrar, et.al.invisible
CO2 Gas killing Tress at Mammoth Mou
ntain, California United states Geologica
l Survey fact sheet 172-96. version 2.0
Revised June 2000.
•
• But where do all the gases that volcano
es or volcanic areas give off come from
? Volcanoes related to trenches are sup
llied with gas from the water and the car
bon and sulfur compounds from organic
matter in the sediments that goes with t
he subducting oceanic plate. Melting of t
he subducting plates generates the mag
ma that brings the gases back to the sur
face.
• . A smaller portion of volcanic gas that c
omes out of spreading mid-oceanic ridg
es and intraplate volcanoes like those H
awaii, is believe to come from the deepe
r portions of the mantle. The volatiles in
the mantle formed as part of the ingredi
ents that made up the earth when it for
med about 4.5 billion years ago. Do you
recall what volatiles, other than hydroge
n, carbon, and sulfur were part of this or
iginal material?
DANGEROUS VOLCANIC GAS CO
MPONENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS
• The most abundant volcanic gas released int
o the atmosphere is water (H²O). Other volca
nic gases include CO², SO², and trace amoun
t of N, H, CO, S, Ar, Cl, and F. These gases c
ombine with hydrogen and water to produce t
oxic compounds, such as HCI, HF, H², SO², H
²S. These gases leave the emission sites as a
cid aerosols as compounds adsorbed on teph
ra, and as microscopic salt particles.
•
• The abundance of volcanic gases varies acco
rding to the tectonic setting of volcanoes. Tabl
e 5.2-1 indicates that convergent-plate volcan
oes or those associated with subduction zone
s tend to emit higher H²O and HCl and lower
CO² and SO² compared with divergent-plate v
olcanoes and hot-spot volcanoes. Why do yo
u think volcanoes located at convergent plate
boundaries emit more water vapor and chlori
ne than volcanoes at hot spot or divergent pla
te boundaries? Where do the extra water and
chlorine come from?
•
• Water vapor is harmless,as it is abunda
nt in the atmosphere. Health hazards ca
used by other volcanic gases can range
from minor to life threatening. Exposure
to acid gases such as sulfur dioxide,hyd
rogen sulfide, and hydrogen chloride ca
n damage eyes and mucous membrane
s along with the respiratory system and
under extreme condition,can lead to dea
th.
•
• Carbon dioxide is abundant in the atmospher
e and is a natural product of respiration Volca
nic CO² emissions over the entire globe amou
nt to less than 1 percent of human emissions.
Locally, CO² can be hazardous when the con
centration I'd high, in the next activity, we shal
l explore how Co² reached Nyos at high con
centrations. This inquiry-based activity, also s
hows how CO² gas from the reaction of vineg
ar and baking soda displaces oxygen and exti
nguished candles at different heights.
•
•
• Sulfur dioxide (SO²) is a colorless gas with a strong o
dor. It is the gas smells from lighting a kitchen match.
At 6-12 ppm, it can cause immediate imitation of the
nose and throat and at 20 ppm. It will irritate the eyes
. Because it forms an acid with water, moist skin will
be irritated within minutes at 10,000 ppm of SO². Its i
nhalation at very high concentrations should be avoid
ed as it is harmful to the upper respiratory tract and b
ronchi. Like SO² and H²S, hydrochloric acid [HCI] irrit
ates the mucous irritation of the throat. At >100 ppm,
HCI cause pulmonary edema and laryngeal spasm.
• The release of SO² gas during an eruption ca
n produce volcanic smog called VOC. Haze a
nd smog result when SO² oxygen, water, and
sunlight interact. The reaction produces tiny d
roplets of acidic water and sulphate mineral p
articles, which interfere with light rsys from th
e sun. Vog causes headaches and irritation of
the eyes and lungs.it causes shortness of bre
ath for people suffering from asthma and othe
r respiratory diseases.
•
• Hydrogen sulfide (H²S) is a colorless, fla
mmable gas which smells like a rotten e
gg. Like SO² it cause irritation of the eye
s at low concentration. A 30-minute exp
osure to 500 ppm of H²S will cause dizzi
ness, headache, and diarrhea. Sometim
es, these symptoms are followed by bro
nchitis or bronchopneumonia.
•
• Florine is a pale yellow gas that occurs i
n volcanic gas as hydrogen fluoride (HF
). Fluorine attaches to fine ash Particles
which diary grass that can be ingested b
y animals. Fluorine that exceeds 250 pp
m In dried grass causes flourosis, an af
fliction taht destroys the bones.
• Since it is known to have caused massi
ve death among livestock, it can also aff
ect humans in the same way. Aside fro
m FIuorosis, it can also caused conjunct
ivitis and skin irritation. Once in contact
with moisture in tissues, hydrogen fluori
de converts right away to a very toxic ac
id. Table 5.2-2 is a summary of the effec
ts of volcanic gases at a given threshold
limit.
•
• Apart from its effects on human and ani
mal health safety, volcanic gases have
huge impact on agriculture, property, an
d the environment. Volcanic gases can
severely damage vegetation. Direct exp
osure to concentrated volcanic gas or lo
ng-term exposure to diluted volcanic ga
s is lethal to most types of foliage.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO²) hydrogen fluoride (
HF), and HCI dissolve in water droplets
in the eruption cloud and fall as acid rai
n. Volcanic gases and acid rain can cau
se corrosion of metal objects such as ai
rcraft body parts and engines, utility line
s, communications equipment farm mac
hinery, and Vehicles. Persistent acid rai
n causes lead-bearing metals to deterior
ate and release toxic metals into drinkin
g eatere.
• In addition to the warming effect of carb
on dioxide released during eruptions, th
e aerosols that form from SO² and ash p
articles help in this warming processes
of stratosphere by absorbing heat radiat
ed up from the earth.
• Aerosol are formed when SO² reacts wi
th water to form sulfuric acid H²SO) vap
or which in turn condenses onto ash par
ticles (figure 5.3-5).the Earth's lower at
mosphere, on the other hand, cools whe
n the aerosols reflect radiation from sun
back into space rather than going straig
ht to the earth's surface. This leads to th
e ground being cooler than usual.
•
• The June 15,1991 eruption of Pinatubo i
njected about 2 million metric tons of S
O² into the stratosphere which caused t
he 20th centuryse largest aerosols dist
urbance of the stratosphere. As a result
the Earth's surface cooled by out 0. C in
the three years following the eruption. T
he sulfate aerosols also accelerated che
mical reactions that lead to the accelera
tion of the ozone layer's depletion.
• The particles themselves do not contribute to
ozone destruction, but they interact with chlori
ne- and bromine-bearing compounds from hu
man-made chemicals, allowing increased ozo
ne destruction. Fortunately, volcanic particles
remain in the stratosphere for only two or thre
e years. The direct contribution of some gase
s from volcanic eruptions to the destruction of
the ozone layer is not significant.
• Hydrogen chlorine, for instances, is an efficie
nt ozone destroyer but is readily dissolve in W
ater. Before it ever reaches the ozone layer, h
ydrogen chlorine is dissolved by rainwater. Th
rough bromine oxide is ten times more effecti
ve in depleting the ozone layer, its concentrati
on is 100. Times less than that of chlorine. Co
mpared with the 75-85% contribution of Hum
an activity, volcanoes contribute for less to oz
one damage (1-5%).
•
 Table 5.2. Toxicology of volcanic gases
(Source:Sax,1993,1974; Wilcox,1959)

Vol. Gas Description Thres hold li Effect of over

mit dose

Usually regarded as a simple asphyxi

Carbon dioxide (C Colorless gas, 5000 ppm ant; symptoms appearing only when
such high concentration are reached
O²)
odorless gas that there is insufficient oxygen to su
pport life. Symptoms are those which
precede asphyxia, namely, headache,
dizziness,shortness of breath, muscul
ar weakness, drowsiness, and ringing
in the ears. Rapid recovery on remov
al from exposure. For persons with pr
e existing cardiopulmonary diseases,
much lower levels of exposure may b
e acutely dangerous as well as over y
ears at low levels.

Carbon mon Colorless ga 100 ppm
oxide (CO) s, odorless g
as
Has affinity for hemoglobi
n 210 times that of oxygen
with CO hemoglobin in the
blood<10%, it rarely has a
ny symptoms;20-30% caus
es shortness of breath on
moderate exertion and slig
ht hardachet:30-50% caus
e severe headache,metal e
xhaustion and dizziness im
partment of vision and bea
ring, and collapse and faint
ing on exertion:50-56% un
consciousness result
 Causes inflammation and irrit
Sulfur dioxi Colorless ga 5 ppm ation of conjunctiva. Forms s
ulfurous acid and oxidises to f
de(SO) s or liquid w orm sulfuric acid. Concentrati
on of 6-12 ppm causes imme
diate irritation of nose and th
ith pungent roat;20 ppm or more imitatin
g to eyes;1000 ppm irritant t
odor o moist skin within a few min
utes. Chiefly affects upper res
piratory tract and bronchi. Fo
r persons with pre-existing ca
rdiopulmonary diseases, muc
h lower levels of exposure m
ay be acutely dangerous, as
well as over years at low level
s.

Carbon mon Colorless ga 100 ppm
oxide (CO) s, odorless g
as
Has affinity for hemoglobi
n 210 times that of oxygen
with CO hemoglobin in the
blood<10%, it rarely has a
ny symptoms;20-30% caus
es shortness of breath on
moderate exertion and slig
ht hardachet:30-50% caus
e severe headache,metal e
xhaustion and dizziness im
partment of vision and bea
ring, and collapse and faint
ing on exertion:50-56% un
consciousness result
 Causes inflammation and irrit
Sulfur dioxi Colorless ga 5 ppm ation of conjunctiva. Forms s
ulfurous acid and oxidises to f
de(SO) s or liquid w orm sulfuric acid. Concentrati
on of 6-12 ppm causes imme
diate irritation of nose and th
ith pungent roat;20 ppm or more imitatin
g to eyes;1000 ppm irritant t
odor o moist skin within a few min
utes. Chiefly affects upper res
piratory tract and bronchi. Fo
r persons with pre-existing ca
rdiopulmonary diseases, muc
h lower levels of exposure m
ay be acutely dangerous, as
well as over years at low level
s.

Hydrogen s Colorless,fla 20 ppm
ulfide (H²SI) mmable gas
with offensi
ve odor
Imitates and asphyxiates. Co
ncentration of 20-150 ppm c
ause eye irritation;slightly hig
her concentration cause irrita
tion of upper respiratory trac
t and, on long exposure to 50
0 ppm results in headache, di
zziness, excitement, staggeri
ng gait, diarrhea, and dysuria
followed sometimes by bronc
hitis or bonchopneumonia. In
small amounts it scyse as dep
resent, in larger amounts as s
timulant, and with very large
amounts respiratory center is
paralyzed.
Sulfuric acid Colorless, o 1 mg m³ Causes severe
(H²SO⁴) nly liquid burns with rap
id destruction
of tissu, inflam
mation of upp
er respiratory
tract, and der
matitis.
 Causes irritation of eyes,
Ammonia, Extremely p 100 ppm conjunctivitis,swelling of
eyelids, irritation of muc
NH ungent colo ous membranes of nose
and throat, coughing, dy
rless gas sphea, vomiting, Irratati
on of the skin may occur
, Particularly if it is most.
Flourine, F² Pale yellow 0.1 ppm A very powerful
Caustic irritant;
gas causes conjuncti
vitis, skin irritati
on, bone degen
eration, mottlin
g of teeth.

Hydrofluori Clear, colorl ppm
c acid, HF ess, turning
corrosive,liq
uid or gas
Extremely irritating and co
rrosive to the skin and mus
cous membranes, inhalatio
n of the vapor may cause u
lcer of the appear respirat
ory tract; concentration at
50-250 ppm are u dangero
us even for brief exposure
s. Produce severe skin bu
ms which are slow in heali
ng. Subtaneous tissue may
be affected becoming blan
ched and bloodless. Gangr
ene of the affected areas
may follow.
Identify Volcanic Gas Danger Spots and A
reas Prone to Gas Accumulation

• Hazard zones for volcanic gases escapi

ng through craters,vents, fissures, or hy
drothermal features are typically close t
o these emission sites. Gas emission sit
es location, low-lying areas in which den
se gases can acumulate, and wind direc
tions that favor gas accumulations are a
ll reflected in defining hazard zones.
•
• As what you have learned in the pr
evious activity, gases like carbon di
oxide and carbon monoxide are he
avier than air and thus flow near th
e ground and closed depressions li
ke stream valleys In topographically
low areas (figure 5.2-).
•
• therefore, Areas subject to the greatest hazard from "
poisonous" gases will be downslope from emission si
tes and along the direction of the wind. The identificat
ion and mapping of sites that emit volcanic gases in a
n important step in identifying danger zones. Figure 5
.2-7 is an example of a volcanic gas hazard map from
the Dieng Mountais java, Indonesia that takes into ac
count gas emission sites and topography. It was don
e by the vulcanological survey of Indonesia following
the death of 149 people from gas emission in 1979.
•
• Are seldom affected from carbon di
oxide asphyxiation. For gases that
attact to ejected fine particles, their
distributios are dependent on the di
stribution of ash deposits. Thus, mo
re distal gas hazard are associated
with tephra falls but the hazard will
also decrease downwind.
• Fluorine and other potentially toxic substance
s on smaller tephra grains may reach distanc
e quite remote from an erupting volcano. Acid
rains are known to reached hundreds of kilom
eters from the emission sites. Acid rains caus
ed by raindrops mixing with aerosols and gas
es adhering to airfull tephra are known to rea
ch distances of more than 2,000 km.
•
• Winds influence the distribution Pattern
of toxic volcanic emissions. Sulphur co
mpounds emitted at Masaya volcano in
Nicaragua were carried westward by wi
nds and caused extensive damage to c
offee plantations and other crops as far
as 40 km in that direction.
•
• Figure 5.2.2 hazard-zonation map of vol
canic gases for an area in the Dieng Mo
untains of lava. The hazard area is topo
graphically the highest at its northern en
d and extends downslope along two bro
ad shallow valleys.
•
Mitigation Measures for Volca
nic Gases
• Some volcanoes continually emit toxic gases
that may be associated with the deposition of
fluorine and other trace elements. In such cas
es, the effects of volcanic gases can be mitig
ated only by the evacuation and resettlement
of the affected population. In other situations,
volcanic gases are emitted only occasionally
on both active and dormant volcanoes.
• To be able respond when critical concentrati
on of gas such as CO² and CO are reached,
automated gas alarms had been used. Anoth
er example gas monitoring is that for SO² in
Miyakejima volcano, south of Tokyo (Japan).
Alerts are issued when SO² concentration exc
eeds critical limits. Loudspeakers, warning lig
hts, and other communication equipment are
used to relay information to people sensitive t
o SO².
• An education program can go hand I ha
nd with monitoring and warning systems
to Make public more prepared through b
etter understanding of gas hazards and
their mitigation. Residents will be more r
eceptive when they are advised on the
use of gas mask, to evacuate into a facil
ity with a desulfurization equipment, and
when they are barred from high-risk Are
as which are displayed in notice boards.
•
• Personal protection measures that can
be taken against gases and acid rains a
re similar to those discussed for tephra f
all(section 5.4). It may be necessary to
evacuate populations where there is per
sistent potential for toxic levels of gases
. Among the most important protective g
adgets that people should have for prot
ection from toxic gases and dust are fac
e mask.
•
 To prevent worsening of pre-existing noncommunicable
respiratory diseases, interstitial lung diseases, and pulm
onary vascular diseases by acid rains, gases, and ash, t
he following actions are recommend:

• Drink flueds to encourage loosening of

secretion and coughing. Staying hydrate
d will help clear the particles and inhale
d sulfur compounds from the lungs.
•
• • During periods of volcanic pollution, av
oid contact with people who have colds.
• • Avoid smoking and inhaling second-ha
nd as smoke will only add to breathing p
roblems.
• • Avoid overexertion. If one have to go o
utdoors, limit physical activities.
• In heavy pollution, stay indoors, close window
s and doors, turn on air conditioners or purifie
r. An air conditioner will condense water out a
nd will remove the particulate sulfur compoun
ds and acid gases. Exposure while indoors ca
n also be reduced by using a fan with moist cl
oth saturated with a thin paste of baking soda
and draped over the face of the fan at low or
medium speed. The baking soda will neutraliz
e the sulfur compounds while the moisture wil
l help filter air particles.
•
• Use gas mask. If one have to work outdoors, one can
greatly reduce exposure to the sulfur compounds and
vog by using a gas mask ( figure 5.2-9). The use of c
ommercial mask made of vinyl or rubber gas mask fitt
ed with cartridges rated for acid gases and particulate
s is highly recommended. Wet handkerchiefs may pr
ovide partial respiratory protection. For greater effecti
veness, soak in a baking soda oastey and then allow
to dry before using as a gas mask. Use of mask shou
ld be done in consultation with your doctor as such d
evises may cause added stress by increasing the"wor
k", of breathing.
•
Apart from the above measures, more specific actions had been re
commended for people in Areas affected by SO² and vog. People w
ho are most vulnerable to these hazard, especially children and oth
er sensitive individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions such
as asthma, emphasema, bronchitis, and chronic lung or heart disea
se, should:

• keep medication on hand and reality available. It is sti

ll wiser to avoid or leave areas that are reasonably lik
ely to be impacted by vog in the near future. Just in c
ase, asthmatic individuals should have both SO² prot
ective devises and medication readily available at all t
imes. Even when evacuating, it is possible that vog w
ill be encountered along the way so current medicatio
ns as well as a gas or particulate mask should be car
ried.
•
• If any respiratory symptoms should dev
elop, contact a doctor as soon as possib
le.
• •Acid rain landing on roofs causes incre
ased acidity of water in catchment tanks
. A simple trick is to add baking soda to
the water in the tank to neutralize acidity
.
•
• Finally, advisories from
Civil Defense authoritie
s should be heeded by
the people living in Are
as affected SO² and Vo
g.
 SECTION 5.3 PYROCLASTIC FLO
WS
• Pyroclastic flows are among the most harmf
ul volcanic hazards, if you find a slow-moving,
glowing hot lava flow dangerous, consider it's
fragmented version that is not only as hot but
also moves tremendously fast. By its heat, sp
eed and volume, none has ever been close to
describing how dangerous pyroclastic flows a
re. Only a few has come out alive to tell the st
ory of his contact with a pyroclastic flow.
• One question often asked is why people a
re so foolhardy to live so close to the volca
noes, when there is obvious danger from e
ruption processes such as pyroclastic flow
s. The common answer is related to the fer
tility of the soil which weathers down from
volcanic rocks. But the same volcano that
nurtures the lives of nearby inhabitants is t
he same volcano taken this away, sometim
es without warning.
How do pyroclastic flow occur
?
• Pyroclastic flows are hot mixtures of fresh
lava, gas, rock, pumice, and ash that move
down the sides of a volcanic crater at high
speed during an eruption. The materials m
ay come from the collapse of lava dome at
or close to the summit or from the material
s going back down from eruption column t
hat cannot go farther into the air (Figure 5.
3-1).
• The mobility and speed of pyroclastic flo
ws are derived from its gas content from t
he heat of its component that further gen
erates more gases. Additional gas comes
from the air, from burnt vegetation, heate
d surface water, and from the melting of i
ce and snow. The finer particles are kept
in suspension by the gas. Large fragment
s are then supported by this mixture of fin
e solid gas.
• Pyroclastic flows are common in volcan
 Types of Pyroclastic Flow
• Recognizing the different types of pyro
clastic flows is as essential differentiatin
g volcano types. Different volcanoes be
have differently; there are violent types
and there are the quite types. All pyrocl
astic flows are dangerous that victims wi
ll not be able to tell the difference betwe
en the types of pyroclastic flow that hit t
hem.
• However, recognizing the the different ty
pes of pyroclastic flows help us to distin
guish these from the eruption products. I
n this way, people are aware of the varyi
ng degrees of danger that volcanoes pre
sent. People would know how to react pr
operly when warned of an imminent pyro
clastic flow, lava flow, airfall, lahar, or de
bris avalanche.
• You have learned from the section of lava
flows (section 5.1) that viscous lavas do not
go very far from the vent. Sometimes, thes
e just keep piling near the vent until a dome
is formed. Soon, gravity causes it's collaps
e and hot glowing broken pieces of lava call
ed glowing avalanche or nuèe ardente goe
s rolling down the slope. Figure 5.3-2 show
s how this mechanism creates pyroclastic fl
ow.
• Above and in front of the more dense pyr
oclastic flow proper are clouds of finer frag
ments. When deposited, the ash cloud sur
ge is composed of very fine layers of ash fr
agments. The pyroclastic flow proper depo
sit, on the other hand, is composed of den
se, solid blocky fragments derived from the
collapsed lava dome. This deposit which c
ontains blocks surrounded by fine-grained
ash is also called block-and-ash deposit.
• Thus, the mechanism that produces nuèe
ardente from the collapse of a dome is calle
d a Merapi type of pyroclastic flow. Nuèe ar
dente deposits of blocks and ash are also g
enerated by dome collapse caused by gas-
driven explosion. This pyroclastic flow-gene
rating is called a Pelean type of eruption (Fi
gure 5.3-2b). Because of the high density, b
lock and ash pyroclastic flow deposits are li
mited to a few tens of kilometers distance fr
om the vent.
• A third pyroclastic flow-generating mech
anism does not involve the collapse of a
dome. The soufrière type of pyroclastic fl
ow-generating mechanism involves the c
ollapse of an eruption column. The collap
se occurs as the fragment-laden eruption
column can no longer be supported by th
e upward thrust of the eruption.
• The product is pumice-rich pyroclastic flo
w deposits called pumice flow which is mu
ch like the pumice that is abundant in the
Pinatubo eruption deposits. Like the block
s in a nuèe ardente deposits, the pumice f
ragments are embedded in ash. Because
of the relatively lower density, pumice flow
s extend much farther and wider than bloc
k and ash flows (i.e., up to 200 km away a
nd up to tens of thousands of sq. km of ar
ea covered)
Some Notable Pyroclastic Flo
w
• Vesuvius, Italy, 79 A.D. One of the most
catastrophic and famous eruption of all tim
e. A series of pyroclastic flows consisting o
f pumice and ash came diem from eruption
column as high as 33 km. Herculaneum an
d Pompeii were buried by pyroclastic flow t
ephra fall and about 16,000 were killed, so
me probably by gas asphyxiation.
• Hibok-Hibok, Philippines, 1951. On Decem
ber 4, 1951, 500 people were killed by pyroc
lastic flows that cascaded down the volcano'
s northeastern flank. The explosion of fresh
magma rather than dome collapse caused t
he deposition of large quantities of pumice a
nd ash. (Source: Gordon A. MacDonald and
Arturo Alcaraz (1956) "nuèes ardentes of th
e 1948-1953 eruption of Hibok-Hibok", Bull.
Volcano, v. 18(1).pp 169-178)
• Tambora, Indonesia, 1815. The largest
eruption ever in recorded history; prior t
o1815 eruption, other eruption were in 3
910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and in 7
40 AD ± 150 years. Pyroclastic flows re
ached more than 20 km from the summi
t and caused 4 m high tsunami waves in
Indonesia. Pyroclastic flows wiped out T
ambora village killing 10,000; tens of tho
usands more died due to famine and dis
ease.
• Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991. 2nd lar
gest eruption of the 20th century; it h
ad 6 eruption periods since 33,000 B.
C. During it's climatic eruption on Jun
e 15~500 years since it's last, pyrocl
astic flows reached as far as 16 km fr
om the summit; early warning preven
ted deaths from the pyroclastic flow
What are the Effects of Pyrocl
astic Flows?
• A pyroclastic flow is so dangerous bec
ause of its speed (up to ~710 km/hr) an
d temperature (up to ~1,000°C). It is s
o hot and moves so quickly that it gives
anyone little opportunity to escape and
very slim chance to survive.
• Burn. The extreme temperatures of rocks an
d gas inside pyroclastic flow can burn people,
houses, and vegetation. Though hot gasesma
y have killed them first, Pompeii residents wer
e petrified by the ash and pumice of pyroclas
tic flow from Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Some re
sidents suffered the same fate from Hibok-Hib
ok's pyroclastic flow in 1951 (Figure 5.3-8). O
n the margins of Pyroclastic flows, death and
serious injury to people and animals may res
ult from burns.
• Impact and burial. By its speed, mass, and volume
, a pyroclastic flow will knock down, shatter, bury,
or carry away nearly all objects and structures in it
s path. Rock fragments range in size from ash to b
oulders and travel at speed usually greater than 8
0 km/hour. Pyroclastic flows from the 1991 eruptio
n of Pinatubo left bare of vegetation a large part of
its western slope and a smaller portion of the east
ern slope. Ash and lahars (derived largely from the
pyroclastic flows) also left many towns in Zambale
s, Pampanga Tarlac buried and bare like a desert.
• Inhalation of hot ash and gases. Hot as
h and gas not only burn but also impair
breathing. Aside from water, volcanoes
also emit toxic gases such as H³S, SO²,
and F². These also combine with water t
o form harmful compounds. The compo
unds that come with pyroclastic flows ar
e toxic and will cause immediate asphyx
iation of people and animals.
• Lahars and flooding. Valleys and other low-lying
areas along the slopes of volcanoes act as chann
el ways and receptors of pyroclastic flow deposits.
The thick accumulation of loose pyroclastic flow d
eposits (as much as 200 m thick) is easily mobiliz
ed by steam flow to become part of lahar. The da
mming of rivers upstream may lead to the rush of
enormous amount of water and debris downslope.
Pyroclastic flows can melt ice and snow too and s
end a sudden torrent of water that can carry new
pyroclastic flow deposits as well as older debris on
the way down.
Pyroclastic Flow Hazard Zonin
g
• For a hazard like pyroclastic flow, the best and perh
aps the only protection measure that anyone can do i
s avoidance of areas to prone to it.
• The definition of pyroclastic hazard zones largely de
pends on the extent of pyroclastic flows from previou
s eruptions. That is why after an eruption, volcanologi
st always make an effort to map the distribution of the
se before. Mapping is more difficult by succeeding er
osion and transformation into lahar.
• Prehistoric eruptions may be a few tim
e bigger than a volcano's string of histor
ical eruptions(e.g., Pinatubo). The possi
bility that a volcano may release more
pent-up energy in its future eruptions sh
ould always by borne in mind. It would t
hen be wise to consider another hazard-
zone category using the outer limits of b
igger pre-historic pyroclastic flow.
• Possible shifts in vent location and slo
pe topography should also be considere
d in determining the potential extent of p
yroclastic flows. It is as important to det
ermine the location of dome build-up an
d low notches that may dictate where th
e direction of collapse may be.
Mitigating the Effects of Pyrocl
astic Flows
• Many deaths had been already attributed to p
rovost flows running over dwelling centers. Th
e same are now more developed and more d
ensely populated and yet the danger from Pyr
oclastic flows remains. Can you name one or
two of these places which had been hit badly
in the past? Because of this, engineering mea
sures similar to what had been suggested for
the lava flows had been floating to escape it's
impact.
• Can you recall what these are? Howeve
r, the chances of these working for pyro
clastic flow are slim. For one, pyroclasti
c flow pathway such as valleys upslope
are usually too for diversion measure to
work. The speed of pyroclastic flows ma
ke it unlikely for barriers of reasonable h
eight to work.
• Any barrier or diversion design will also
contend with the overlying ash cloud wh
ich can surmount greater heights. Witho
ut giving any false hope, any engineerin
g measures might work for the smaller a
nd slower tried of pyroclastic flows.
•
 SECTION 5.4

Tephra Falls and Ballistic P

rojectiles
• In 1815, Mount Tambora, a volcano in Indonesia
, erupted. That year was called “ the year without
a summer”. Can something be that big to block th
e sunlight over a big part of the earth's surface?
• Tambora ejected so much volcanic material in w
hat is known as the biggest eruption in recorded i
n history.
• Not all the materials that went up from the volcan
o's vent went back down right away. The finest of
the materials, ash, went up so high and never sett
led down near the volcano.
• So much material was spread far enough by
atmospheric circulation that the sunlight was
actually blocked. This also caused temporary
cooling that global temperatures drooped an
average of about 0.5°C and cause incidence
s of extreme weather. A similar phenomenon
happened when Pinatubo Volcano erupted in
1991(Figure 5.4-1). Do you know someone wi
th first-hand experience of this? If not, what d
o the news accounts tell about how the day s
uddenly turn into night.
What are Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

• Tephra refers to volcanic rock and lava materials tha

t are ejected into the air by explosions or carried upw
ard by eruption column's hot gases(Figure 5.4-2 and
5.4-3) or lava fountains.
• While pyroclastic flows follow the slope on the way
down, tephra falls skip hugging the slope and go dire
ctly to the ground. Tephra falls range in size from les
s than 2 mm(ash) to more than 1m in diameter. In m
ost cases, however, airfall tephra consists of ash (<2
mm) and of the coarser lapili 2-64 mm in diameter).
• Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the
ground on or close to the volcano and progre
ssively smaller fragments are carried away fro
m the vent by wind. Ash can travel hundreds t
o thousands of kilometers downwind from a v
olcano. If often leaves a mantle of ash layer o
ver the landscape that diminishes in thickness
the farther it goes from the volcanic center. A
sh can circle the globe if the eruption column i
s high enough.
• Ballistic projectiles are special kind of tephra.
These follow a projectile path as these are forc
ed out of the vent at steep angles like canon b
all (Figure 5.4-2). Ballistic projectiles consists o
f bombs, blocks, and lapili. Bombs and blocks
are >64 mm in diameter but differ in the nature
of source material. Bombs are derived from fre
sh magma while blocks are chips of the wall of
the volcanic vent. While bombs attain smoothn
ess and peculiar shapes before they fall to the
ground, blocks are rough with sharp edges.
Types of Tephra Falls and Ball
istic Projectiles
• There are many kinds of tephra that differ in size, sh
ape, density, and chemical composition. To simplify t
hings, volcanologist first classify tephra deposits acco
rding to size. Do you know why this kind of classificati
on makes perfect sense? Tephra falls and ballistic pr
ojectiles undergo some kind of winnowing process th
at sort fragments from the largest (bombs and blocks)
, near the volcano, to finest (ash), farther away from t
he source, Figure 5.4-4 shows classification scheme.
• A) Ash - < 2 mm diam. fragments, mix of bro
ken glass and pulverized rock.
• B) Lapili - 2 — 64 mm diam. fragments; bigg
er pumice fragments are lapili mixed with fine
r ash.
• C) Blocks and bombs— > 64 mm fragments;
bombs molten when ejected and assume vari
ous shapes upon cooling; blocks are large br
oken pieces of solid vent material or surround
ings rocks.
• Pumice fall deposits are derived from plinian eruptions lik
e the type which occurred in the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo
. Scoria fall deposits are products of strombolian eruption
of basaltic to andesitic volcanoes like Taal. Quarrying of p
umice and scoria has been going on for a long time in Pina
tubo and Taal, respectively, long after the ejection of these
deposits.
• Another classification scheme describes differently-sized
tephra according to appearance. Rapid cooling of basaltic l
ava while still in the air produce teardrop-shaped lapili-size
fragments called Pele's tears (Figure 5.4-5). Strong winds
may shape lava into hair-like fragments called Pele's hair (Figur
e 5.4-5).
Danger from Tephra Falls and
Ballistic Projectiles
• Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles may not b
e directly threatening unless a person is dose
enough to an eruption to be struck by larger fr
agments. Though only directly fatal, thick ash
falls farther away from the eruption column m
ay be as dangerous. Even a thin veneer of vo
lcanic ash is highly disruptive because it mant
les considerable part of the landscape
• Airborne fine particles can harm the eye
s with conjunctivitis and corneal abrasio
ns. It can also cause human asphyxiatio
n and damage to lungs of survivors. Pro
longed (months of year) exposure and i
nhalation by survivors of more than 50
micrograms of silica crystals per 1 m ² o
f ash can cause silicosis (scarring of lun
gs)
• Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles also endanger life,
property, and the environment in the following keys:
• Small scoria pieces can be embedded in wood and c
an even dent metals. Could you imagine what a falling
object the size of a house can do? Through ballistic pr
ojectiles usually occur only close to the volcano, the hi
gh impact is the source of hazard from a large volcani
c projectiles. Do you know how much force the impact
of falling fragments exert? The kinetic energy of impa
ct of a volcanic projectile is dependent on both mass
and terminal velocity, both being a function of projectil
e diameter and projectile density.
• Ash dogs filters and vents of motors, industrial mac
hines, and nuclear power plants; may clog air filters of
vehicles including those of jet engines; and abrasion
of moving parts (bearing ,brakes,a and transmissions)
and bodies of automobiles.
• Airborne ash can reduce visibility to zero and turn da
y to night by blocking sunlight.
• Volcanic projectiles have temperatures above ignitio
n points. Initial temperatures of projectiles generated f
rom new magma may reach up to 1100°C. Upon im
pact, temperatures may well be above the ignition poi
nt for vegetation and a variety of man-made objects
• Some pyroclastic falls contain toxic gases, a
cids,salts, and chemicals that can be absorbe
d by plants and water bodies, which can be d
angerous to people and other living things.
• Tephra can change rainfall or runoff relation
ships. Low permeability of hardened ash dep
osits leads to increased runoff, accelerated er
osion, and floods; thick coarse-grained depos
its retain water and eliminate surface runoff.
How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles
are dispersed or Hazard Zoning
• Ballistic projectiles are ejected with trajectory
angles >45 deg, although there are cases wh
ere it is lower than this (e.g., ~30 deg). Ejectio
n velocities are in the range of 75 m/s to 320
m/s. How far the projectiles go from the vent
party depends on the size of the ejected frag
ments. Ballistic projectiles had been found to
rarely go beyond 5 km from the vent.
• Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic ha
zards but it is quite troublesome to a larger number o
f people because of its tremendous reach.
• Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic ha
zards but it is quite troublesome to a larger number o
f people because of its tremendous reach.However, p
redicting where the fragments will land, how big will t
hese be, and how thick the accumulation will be is a v
ery difficult task. One source of difficulty in predicting
the thickness and size of tephra that might fall in one
place is the size of eruption itself and the volume of
materials it carries.
• Wind above the stratosphere has a nonconvenctiv
e circulation pattern that could be quite different from
that in the troposphere. At low levels the wind pattern
is turbulent. Volcanologist this tend to draw a circular
zone covering just about any direction for a certain di
stance. At higher levels, where the prevailing winds ta
ke over, atmospheric flow is more uniform in direction
. That means, tephra is expected to fall preferentially i
n a certain direction depending on the prevailing wind
direction at the time of the eruption of high columns of
tephra. In general, greater amounts of tephra fall out
of the ash cloud near the vent so that airfall deposits t
ypically thin away from the vent
 Mitigating the Effects
• With the tremendous impact and heat that ballistic projectil
es bring, the best thing to do is to stay away from the area
close to the crater. The safe distance varies with each volc
ano but is usually several kilometers around the volcanic c
enter. The design of any shelter from ballistic projectiles w
ould need to recognize that the size of potential bombs wit
hin this zone prevents the construction of any bomb- proof
shelter. Beyond this zone, a precaution that can be taken f
rom smaller hot fragments is covering windows facing the
crater with corrugated iron sheets. Thick steel roof sheets
as roofing materials can provide protection
• During a tephra fall, the first priority is to seek refuge
beyond the reach of its effects. Mobility issues during
an emergency, however, might prevent most people
from doing so. As long as where you are is not also
affected by the other volcanic hazards, there may be
no need to go farther. This would then entail adoptin
g precautionary measures to keep safe from the har
mful effects of tephra fall. These include personal me
asures that can be taken before, during and after, a t
ephra fall some of the measures need to be address
ed at the community and local government level.
 Precaution of Tephra Fall
• Before
• Protective clothing and high -efficiency dust ma
sks should be made available and placed in easil
y accessible points before volcano- related emer
gencies which are likely to experience tephra fall.
• Design roof orientation and pitch to discourage t
ick tephra buildups.
• Strengthen roofs and walls to withstand loading
and projectile impacts.
• During
• Wear protective clothing and high- efficiency dust mask.
• If no approved mask is available. A fabric mask improvise
d from handkerchiefs, cloth, or clothing filter out the larger a
sh particles which may contribute to throat and eye irritation
. Dampening the fabric with water will improve its effectiven
ess.
• Patients with chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma
are advised to a stay inside and void unnecessary exposure
to ash.
• Keep a proper distance between vehicles when driving. Ve
hicular accidents are more likely to occur because of reduc
ed visibility.
• Clear tephra from roofs as it accumulat
es.
• Wear respirators or wet cloths over the
mouth and and nose to reduce inhalation
of tephra and gases. Tephra can contain
harmful gases absorbed on particles as
acid aerosols and salt particles.
• After
• Remove or stabilize tephra on the ground after
a fall prohibit reworking.
• Handle the ash ipen, well-ventilated areas, and
wet the dust whenever possible to prevent its mo
vement.
• Wear goggles or corrective eyeglasses instead
of contact lenses to protect eyes from irritation ca
used by fine ash.
• Personnel not essential to the emergency shoul
d be kept inside and made to strictly observe all s
afety precautions during clean up.
 SECTION 5.5 LAHARS
• •Whenever a topic shifts to lahars, the na
me of a lahar victim, Omayra Sanchez, Al
ways comes to mind. Omayra was a 13 y
ear old schoolgirl in. Armero, a town that
was bodly stricker by the by the 1985 lah
ars cascading dowm the slopes of Nevad
o del Ruic in Colombia. These are the de
adliest lahars in volcanic history.
• The Armero tragedy is colombla's wors
t disasters( with 23,000 fatalities) and
one of the 20th century's worst disast
ers. The deadliest Philippine lahar eve
r was from Mayon, which in daraga,alb
ay in 1814.
•
• What is lahar? Is the process whe
rein wet cement-like mixture of Volcanic
material and water flows down and slop
es of a Volcano. Lahar usually carries fr
esh eruption material like pyroclastic flo
ws and tephra fall.
• Despite the fact that lahars are debris-la
den, like wet concrete, these are quite
mobite. The deposits that lahar leave be
hind are like a dry concrete sometimes
with boulders as big as a house scattere
d everywhere.
• •Lahars werw deposited at different time
s following Pintubo volcanoes 1991 eru
ption pyclastic flows an tephea falbs on
thw upper slopes of pintubo were th sou
rces of volcanic materials of the lahars.
• The lahars took advantage 9f he major
and more minor ruvers around pintubo i
n Zambales,Pampangga, and tarlac 1).
1991 pyroclastic flows 2). Lahars 3). Is
ophachs ( or lines of equal thickness) of
airfull deposit in aim; 4). Active lahar ch
annels; 5). Provincial bundaries ; 6). To
wns.
 How are Lahars generated?
• Many lahars are formed by intense rainf
all during an eruption. Rainwater can e
asily erode loose volcanic material depo
sit on the upper slopes of volcano along
the
• Lahar Deposits

• Poar sorting (mix of different sizes of fr

agments): fragments are from clay. Size
d to bouldersleed (depends on sources
materials boulders are more common in
Mayon Lahars than in Pinatubo lahars)
• May containa wide variety of clasts (heterolith
ic)
• Matrix-supported means pebbles, rocks, and
boulders are not touching each other majority
of the outcrop is silt, sand, or clay
• May have reverse-graded base (sinaller frag
ments are at the lower part)
• May show some clast imbrication or prefene
d onentatoin of the larger fragments
• Clasts typically angular to sub-angular
• Lahar-Runout Flow Deposit

• Displays better bedding than lahar shaw

s better sorting than lahar
• Normal grading lobove a possible rever
se graded basel
• Better clast imbrication that lahar
• Boulders not as common
• Fegure 5.5-3 Each type of lahars deposi
t is formed by a process with corresfond
ing mix of water and sediment Modified
from smith and Low.1991.
• Lahars deposits are formed similarly as
those formed by stream in non-volcanic
areas. Large badsides may deposit loos
e materials along the course of a river w
hich can be carried as non-volcanic deb
ris flow. Sometimes too little of it.
• In some instance,the supply of along a
river's course becomes the determining
factor in the type of flow and the overtio
n of sediment involved. In the same way
, flow transformations occur between n
ormal stream flow and lahars. Sediment
-poor
• normal streamflow may become en
riched with more sediment and bec
ome lahars. Lahars become diluted
by inbolving more water or by deoyi
ng supply of sediment to be transfo
rmed to hyperconcentrated streamfl
ow.
• Hyperconcentrated streamflows form la
hars deposits called lahar-runout flows.
Fegure 5.5-3 shoes the difference betw
een the two end members of lahars bas
ed on the type of deposit formed.
• These are usually 1-10 meters in thickness. D
eposits may extend up to 10 km. from their so
urce and they travel at speeds up to 100 km/h
. Despite the distance and speed by which its
components travel, how was angularity or sha
rpness of adges of the fragments maintained
? How does the transport process deffer from
those of water-land deposits
• Compare these fragments with those in no.1.
How do you distinguish the edge of these frag
ment? What can be inferred about the distanc
e traveled by the fragments based on roundn
ess (smoothness of comers). Is this an indicat
ion that water was involved as agent of transp
osting the volcanic materials? The fragments
may have been smoothened even before bei
ng transported by water from the dam. How d
o you suppose rounding of the rock fragment
s is accomplished during river transport?
• Figure 5.5-5. Source Scout

• 1988. Origin behavior, and sedimentol

ogy of prehistoric catastrophic lahars at
Mounts St. Helens Washington Geologi
cal Society of America Special Paper 22
9, P.23.35
• Effects of Lahars
• Like non-volcanic debris flows, lahars
move as fluid masses with the general c
onsistency of wet concrete. Lahars are
dangerous because of the large volume
of materials involved and the speed by
which they deliver these materials.
• Lahars can travel as far as 300 km and
at speeds of about 70 km/hr. Lahars are
able to transport large amounts of debri
s eroded from valleys and slapes on the
upper parts of the volcano. Extremely la
rge boulders and logs may be carreid wi
th the sediments.
• Boulders as big as 1.5m had been repor
ted from Pinatubos lahar deposits. At N
evado del Ruiz a boulde about 208 m w
as carried by its 1985 lahars. Lahars ca
n vary from hot to cold, depending on th
eir mode of genesis or the origin ofthe d
ebris and water.