Basics of Instrumentation

Learning Objectives

At the end of training program participants should be able to:

› Know the basics of Instrumentation

› Identify need of instrumentation

› Classify the instruments

› List out the instruments

› Understand working principle of instruments/equipments

› Describe measurement techniques for Pressure, Flow, Temperature, level, etc.

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“INSTRUMENT” Concept

› The word INSTRUMENT derives its origin from a Latin word “ñstrïmentum”. Its general meanings are:

• A means by which something is done

• An Implement used to facilitate work.

› However in Industry the word Instrument is generally defined as:

• An Implement used to measure some Physical Quantity.

• Instruments are further classified according to the measurable Physical Quantity.

› The total instruments should be independent to each other in assessing the process conditions

› Instrumentation should be sufficient to provide adequate information for the efficient operation of plant

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Introduction

› Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameter, pressure, flow, level or temperature to name a few and
supplying a signal that is proportional to the measured parameter.

› The output signals are standard signal and can then be processed by other equipment to provide indication, alarms or automatic
control.

› There are a number of standard signals; however, those most common in a plant are the 4-20 mA electronic signal , 20-100 kPa
pneumatic signal, 1- 5VDC , 3-15 psig and binary contact input outputs.

› This section of the course is going to deal with the instrumentation equipment normal used to measure and provide signals. We will
look at the measurement of various parameters like : pressure, flow, level , temperature and Analytical Instruments

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Instrument Selection Criteria

Instruments Selection is influenced by following factors:

› Required accuracy of measurement

› Range of Measurement

› The form of final data display required

› Process media

› Cost

› Calibration and repair facilities required/ available

› Layout restriction

› Maintenance requirement/ availability

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Classification of Instruments

Instruments are classified by the nature of service rendered. General Classification is as under:

Primary or Field Instruments

› Instruments which are exclusively installed in field are called Field or Primary Instruments.

Secondary Instruments

› Instruments installed in control room are called Secondary Instruments.

Analytical Instruments

› Instruments used for Steam and Water Chemistry and Flue Gas Analysis are termed Analytical Instruments.

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Needs of Instrumentation in Power Plant

Instrumentation is the Eye of any power plant or process plant. Instrumentation helps you to monitor various parameters like
temperature, pressure, level, flow of steam and condensate water, vibration etc.. in Power Plant. Instrumentation monitors & controls
different cycles of power plant I.e. steam cycle, feed water cycle, fuel cycle, flue gas cycle.

In this modernised world, we are successfully running plants just because of instrumentation. All the automatised systems are done by
instrumentation. We are operating a valve at field from control room its all because instrumentation. Not only valve operating dampers,
motors and so on in plant are done using instrumentation resulting in lower the man power and cost effective

Safe and efficient running of the plant is the most important thing. So most modern instruments are used for measuring and process
control. So many trips are provided for the safety of plant and personal. All these is achieved by instrumentation and automation, There
are lot of parameters to be controlled.. Turbo generators needs lot of instrumentation .

Power plant is mostly based on our whole body structure in such a way:

 Control System is the BRAIN

 Boiler / HRSG are the STOMACH

 Drives like FANS are NOSE or LUNGS

 INSTRUMENTAION is the EYE

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 TURBINES & FEED PUMPS are HEART.

Role of Instrumentation Engineer / Technician in Power Plant

.- Plant control system testing, tweaking and commissioning

- Plant SCADA system (electrical switchgear control) testing and commissioning
All the above work involves more or less the same type of work
- Testing (occasional calibration and replacement) of Plant field instrumentation
- Testing and commissioning of all types of control valves , Servo Valves(loop checking and ensuring proper feedback)
- Testing commissioning of plant solenoid valves (proper operation and feedback)
- Testing and commissioning of plant MOV
- Testing and calibration of plant measurement circuits, pressure, temperature, flow, speed, position and vibration probes.
-- Testing and commissioning of plant analyzers, In boilers, it will be PH, silica, conductivity, phosphate, SOx, NOx, CO, unburnt fuel and
oxygen analysers.
- Testing and tweaking of graphics, minor modifications in consultation with plant operating personnel.
- Testing and tweaking of control constants and minor (to sometimes major) logic modifications in application code to the controllers.
- Testing and commissioning of other plant systems, which do not form the part of the typical turbine and DCS control. They include
- Turbine and generator CO2 release system
- Plant and Turbine heat sensors and fire detectors panel , MCP (manual call points) system and associated auxiliaries
- Plant communication system etc….
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Primary or Field Instruments

Where Primary Instruments are Installed?

› Primary Instruments are directly installed on the physical Process Lines.

› It is also known as Field Instruments.

Role of Primary Instruments is..

› To transmits real time value of process variable to Process Modules.

› Process Modules generate “Analogue or Digital” output from real time value.
› Analogue or Digital Output is used for Display, Control and Alarms.

Measurement Parameter by field Instruments are:

› Pressure
› Temperature
› Level
› Flow

Continued……
Pressure Measurement

› The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control operation or a standard (4 - 20 mA) electronic signal that
represents the pressure in a process.

› They include diaphragms, pressure bellows, bourdon tubes and pressure capsules. With these pressure sensors, physical motion is
proportional to the applied pressure within the operating range.

Common Pressure Detectors

› Bourdon Tubes

› Bellows

› Diaphragms

› Manometers

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Pressure Measurement

Atmospheric Pressure (also known as Barometric Pressure):

› The pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.696 psi(a). The value of atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing altitude with temperature.

Gauge Pressure:
› The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Represents positive difference between measured pressure and existing atmospheric
pressure. Can be converted to absolute by adding actual atmospheric pressure value.

Absolute Pressure:
› Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute represents total lack of pressure.

› If Atmospheric pressure is included, then the resulting pressure is called absolute pressure.

› The Absolute Pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure - the pressure that would occur at absolute vacuum.

Differential Pressure:
› The difference in magnitude between pressure value and reference pressure. In a sense, absolute pressure could be considered as
a differential pressure with total vacuum as the reference.

› Likewise, gauge pressure could be considered as Differential Pressure with atmospheric pressure as the reference. 11
Relation between various Pressures

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

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Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Manometer

› Manometer is device used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid with
the same column or another of the fluid

› They are fundamental type of Instruments.

› Mostly used in laboratory for Calibration purposes

› At site they are mainly used for test purposes, in the low ranges 0-1000 mm.

› Manometer gives absolute pressure as one end is sealed.

› The manometer liquid normally used is water. Sometime colored water is used to distinguish the column.
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Types of Manometer

› ‘U’ tube manometer

› Inclined tube manometer

› Well type manometer

‘U’ tube manometer Inclined tube manometer Well type manometer

Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Pressure Gauge:

› Pressure Gauges use a C shaped Bourdon tube-sensing element generally

made of a copper alloy (brass) or stainless steel.

› When pressure is applied through the pressure port (socket), it forces the
Bourdon tube to straighten.

› This motion is transmitted via the link to the Sector and Pinion.

› This linear motion of the bourdon tube forces the Pointer Tip to move.

› Pointer travels over a scale to indicate the Measured Pressure.

Calibration
Scale

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continued……
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge:

› Diaphragm Pressure Gauges are used for aggressive and highly viscous
gaseous and liquid, or contaminated media.

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continued……
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Strain Gauge Working Principle:

› Resistance of Every Electrical Conductor changes under Mechanical Stress.

› R = ρ×l / a, where ρ is constant, l= length of conductor and a is area

› Resistance change is partially due to conductor’s deformation and,

› Partially due to change in Resistivity of Conductor Material due to Microstructural Changes.

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continued……
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Strain Gauge Sensor :

› Welded Sensors use Bonded Strain Gauges connected to Half Bridge circuit.

› When Sensor is Pressure Loaded, it creates “Imbalance” in Half Bridge circuit.

› A precision Voltmeter connected in Bridge provides “Accurate” voltage signal in proportion to “Imbalance.”

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Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Piezo Electric Sensor :

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect. to measure changes in
pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or force by converting them to an electrical charge.
The prefix piezo- is Greek for 'press' or 'squeeze

Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured; the most
common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors a thin membrane and a massive
base is used, ensuring that an applied pressure specifically loads the elements in one direction.
For accelerometers, a seismic mass is attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer
experiences a motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newton's
second law of motion F = m a
The main difference in working principle between these two cases is the way they apply forces to
the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor, a thin membrane transfers the force to the elements,
while in accelerometers an attached seismic mass applies the forces.
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Other Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices

Capacitive:
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable Capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure.
Magnetic Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by Eddy Current
principle.
Optical :
Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure.
Potentiometric :
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure.
Resonant:
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.

Thermal conductivity

Generally, as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase in pressure - its ability to conduct heat increases. In this type of
gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it.

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Pressure Measurement

Pressure Switch:
› A Pressure Switch is a form of switch that closes an electrical contact when a certain set fluid pressure has been reached on its
input.

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continued……
Pressure Measurement

Smart Transmitter
› Smart Transmitter gives standard 4-20 mA output corresponding to Full Span (0-100%) of process measurement range and
can be connected to DCS through data highway.

› They can be Calibrated on line by HART Calibrator (flow chart)

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Smart Transmitter
continued……
Pressure Measurement

› Flowchart of Smart Transmitters is explained in the appended template:

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Flow Measurement

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. The common types of flow
meters that find industrial application can be listed as below:

 Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area)

 Inferential (turbine type)
 Electromagnetic
 Positive-displacement flow meters, which accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the volume is filled to
measure flow.
 Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding)
 Anemometer
 Ultrasonic
 Mass flow meter (Coriolis meter).
Flow measurement methods other than positive-displacement flow meters rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a
known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large
flows, tracer methods may be used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or radioisotope.
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Flow Measurement

› Flow Measurement can be done by primary flow sensing element like Orifice Plate, Flow Nozzle, Pitot Tube, Annubar etc which are most
commonly used in industries.

Orifice Plate

› Orifice plate is used to create the differential pressure by which flow can be measured for any particular line.

› The orifice plate is commonly used in clean liquid, gas, and steam service.

› It is available for all pipe sizes. Pressure drop is more in case of orifice plate and could not be used where more accurate measurement
is required.

› Installation of Orifice plate is very important and it should be in flow direction.

› Tag name and size on strip is the identification for front side of orifice plate.

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Typical view of Orifice plate
Flow Measurement

Flow Nozzle

› Flow nozzle is applicable where less pressure drop is allowed and comparatively accurate measurement is required.

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Flow Measurement

Annubar

› It is a device used to measure the flow of a liquid, gas or steam fluid that flows through a pipe.
› It enables flow measurement by creating a differential pressure (DP) that is proportional to the square of the velocity of
the fluid in the pipe, in accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem.

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Flow Measurement

Pitot Tube

› Pitot tubes are a common type of insertion flowmeter (with no moving parts) used to measure flow velocities.
› Pitot tubes sense the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow at a particular point.

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Flow Measurement

Flow Meters:

› Most common type of Flow Measurement works on the theory of Differential Pressure. These meters convert flow rate into a
differential pressure.

› Important types are shown in the diagram

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Continued……
Flow Measurement – Flow Meters

› Working principle of Flow Meters is based on change in fluid velocity.

› Velocity change produces a change in the pressure.

› So a difference DP= p2 - p1 is created.

› It can be shown for all these meters that the volume flow rate Q is related to DP by the following formula:

Q = K (DP)0.5

Where K is the Meter constant

› Extra instrumentation heads can be fitted to produce an standard Electrical Output of 4 to 20 mA.

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Continued……
Flow Measurement – Flow Meters

Some other Flow meters in use are:

› Coriolis Flow Meters

› Electromagnetic Flow Meters

› Thermal Flow Meters

› Ultrasonic Flow Meters

› Vortex Flow Meters

Except Coriolis Flow Meter, all flow meters are volumetric, which are effected by ambient temperature. Coriolis Flow Meter measures
Mass which is immune to ambient temperature changes. This the most accurate meter.

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Continued……
Flow Measurement – Flow Meters

Coriolis Flow Meter Electromagnetic Flow Meter

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Flow Measurement – Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meter Electromagnetic Flow Meter

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Flow Measurement

Flow Switches:
› Flow switches are highly reliable devices utilized to sense the presence or absence of flow in pipelines.

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Level Measurement

Level measurement is a single dimension from a reference point. As shown tank level is measured, either by Inage method or Outage
method. Each Manufacturer has a different Instruction Set.
Level Measurement Principle
Level devices operate under three main different principles:
 The position (height) of the liquid surface
 The pressure head
 The weight of the material
There are two methods used to measure the level of a liquid:
 Direct Methods
 Indirect or inferential Method
Direct Methods ( ) Visual Methods)
• The direct method measures the height above a zero point by any of the following methods point by any of the following methods.
• Direct methods for level measurement are mainly used where level changes are small and slow such as; Sump tanks and Bulk
storage tanks. Direct methods are simple and reliable. There are four types of direct level measurement devices:
1.Dip-sticks & Dip-Rods
2.Weighted gauge tape
3.Sight Gauges, and 35

Continued……
4.Floats
Level Measurement

Level Gauges / Meters:

› Level gauges / meters measure the Level of liquids and powder in tanks.

› They use a variety of principles and produce outputs in electrical and pneumatic forms.

› Type to use depends on the substance in the tank. Here are a few:

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Continued……
Level Measurement

Level Gauges / Meters:

› The ultrasonic system reflects sound waves from the surface and determines the depth from the time taken to
receive the reflected sound.

› The electronic version uses a variety of electrical affects including conduction of the fluid and capacitance.

› The pneumatic version bubbles air through the liquid and the pressure of the air is related to the depth.

› A simple pressure gauge attached to a tank also indicates the depth since depth is proportional to pressure.

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continued……
Level Measurement

Open Tank Level Measurement:

If the tank is open to atmosphere, the high-pressure side of the

level transmitter will be connected to the base of the tank while

the low-pressure side will be vented to atmosphere. In this

manner, the level transmitter acts as a simple pressure

transmitter.

We have:

Phigh = Patm + S⋅H

Plow = Patm

Differential pressure ΔP = Phigh – Plow = S⋅H

The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the

tank is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level

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Continued……
Level Measurement
Close Tank Level Measurement:
Should the tank be closed and a gas or vapour exists on top of
the liquid, the gas pressure must be compensated for. A change
in the gas pressure will cause a change in transmitter output.
This cover gas pressure is thus used as a back pressure or
reference pressure on the LP side of the DP cell. One can also
immediately see the need for the three-valve manifold to
protect the DP cell against these pressures.
The different arrangement of the sensing lines to the DP cell is
indicated a typical closed tank application
We have:
Phigh = Pgas + S⋅H
Plow = Pgas
ΔP = Phigh – Plow = S⋅H
The effect of the gas pressure is cancelled and only the
pressure due to the hydrostatic head of the liquid is sensed.
When the low-pressure impulse line is connected directly to the
gas phase above the liquid level, it is called a dry leg. 39
Continued……
Level Measurement
Radar Type Level Measurement:
Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter/sensor
(located at some high point) to the surface of a process material located
further below in much the same way as ultrasonic level sensors, by
measuring the time-of-flight of a travelling wave and then determine the
level of the process material.
The fundamental difference between a radar level instrument and an
ultrasonic level instrument is the type of wave used. Radar level
instruments use radio waves instead of sound waves used in ultrasonic
instruments. Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of
alternating electric and magnetic fields), with very high frequency in the
microwave frequency range – GHz.
There are two basic types of level radar instruments: guided-wave radar
and non-contact wave radar. Guided-wave radar instruments use wave
guide “probes” to guide the radio waves into the process liquid while non-
contact radar instruments send radio waves out through open space to
reflect off the process material.
The transmitter measures the time delay between the transmitted and
received echo signal and the on-board microprocessor calculates the
distance to the liquid surface using the formula:
Distance = [Speed of Light * Time Delay]/2
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Continued……
Level Measurement

Ultrasonic Type Level Measurement:

Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it. Ultrasonic uses the sound
waves, and Radar uses radio waves. When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object, it
is reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time travelled by the ultrasonic pulse
is calculated, and the distance of the object is found. Bats use well known method to measure the
distance while travelling. Ultrasonic level measurement principle is also used to find out fish
positions in ocean, locate submarines below water level, also the position of a scuba diver in sea.

We will refer to Fig-1 and make an effort to understand the technicalities of ultrasonic level
transmitter. An ultrasonic level transmitter is fixed at the top of a tank half filled with liquid. The
reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the tank. Level to be detected is marked as
“C”, and “B” is the distance of the ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level. Ultrasonic pulse signals
are transmitted from the transmitter, and it is reflected back to the sensor. Travel time of the
ultrasonic pulse from sensor to target and back is calculated. Level “C” can be found by multiplying
half of this time with the speed of sound in air. The measuring unit final result can be centimetres,
feet, inches etc.
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Level = Speed of sound in air x Time delay / 2
Continued……
Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance between the plates.

Level Measurement

RF Capacitance Type Level Measurement: Capacitance level sensors are used for wide variety of solids,
aqueous and organic liquids, and slurries. The technique is
frequently referred as RF as radio frequency signals applied to the
capacitance circuit.

The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change

of capacitance. An insulated electrode acts as one plate of
capacitor and the tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic
vessel) acts as the other plate. The capacitance depends on the
fluid level. An empty tank has a lower capacitance while a filled
tank has a higher capacitance.

A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a

small thickness of an insulator such as solid, liquid, gas, or
vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric.
C = E (K x A/d)
Where: Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF) distance between the plates.
E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free space
K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material
A = effective area of the conductors
d = distance between the conductors
This change in capacitance can be measured using AC bridge
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Continued……
Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance between the plates.

Level Measurement

Conductivity Type Level Measurement:

The conductivity of a liquid medium may vary widely. Once the liquid
reaches the fill limit determined from the installation height of the electrode,
the liquid medium closes the DC free alternating current circuit between the
two electrodes (or between the container wall and an electrode). A
switching signal is produced from the sudden increase in current
consumption.

Acids, lyes and solutions containing water are conductive and are detected
very well. Aggressive liquids can be detected without problems using probes
made from highly-resistant materials. Combustible liquids such as fuels, oils
and solvents are nonconductive and cannot be measured by this

measurement principle.

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Continued……
Typical view of Level Instrument

Flange connected
Float type Level Switch to Tank
Level Scale

Level Indicator

Float

Actual Level
Temperature Measurement

Introduction:

 Accurate Measurement of temperature is vital across broad spectrum of human activities.

 Including Industrial process
 Health & Safety
 In fact almost every sector , Temp is one of the important parameters to be measured.

Temperature :

 Scalar Quantity
 Degree of Hotness or coldness
 Molecular K.E = Temperature

Heat :

 Form of Energy
 Measured in calories or BTU’s

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector):

› These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor

change with temperature.

› Resistivity of the conductor changes with temperature. This means the

resistance increases as the conductor gets hotter. If a constant voltage is
applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with
temperature.

› RTDs are traditionally used for their high accuracy and precision.

› The following equation relates the Resistance and Temperature:

R = Ro (1 + αt)

(α is the temperature coefficient of resistance. Ro is the resistance at 0º C)

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Temperature Measurement

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

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Temperature Measurement

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

Thermocouples:

› Thermocouple is used for measuring the temperature of any equipment.

› Working of Thermocouple is based on the Seebeck Effect, that is

• When two different materials with different expansion co-efficient are heated at one end (Hot End) an EMF, proportionate to the
temperature difference is generated at the other end (Cold End).
• When heat is applied to the junction, a voltage, in the range of milli Volts (mV) is generated. A thermocouple is therefore said to be
self-powered.

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continued……
Temperature Measurement

Thermocouples:

› Peltier effect, the cooling of one junction and the heating of the other when
electric current is maintained in a circuit of material consisting of two
dissimilar conductors; the effect is even stronger in circuits containing
dissimilar semiconductors

Types of thermocouple:

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continued……
Temperature Measurement

The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature

difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two
substances.

When heat is applied to one of the two conductors or semiconductors,

heated electronsflow toward the cooler one. If the pair is connected
through an electrical circuit, direct current (DC) flows through that
circuit,
The voltages produced by Seebeck effect are small, usually only a few
microvolts (millionths of a volt) per kelvin of temperature difference at
the junction. If the temperature difference is large enough, some
Seebeck-effect devices can produce a few millivolts (thousandths of a
volt).

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

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Continued……
Typical view of a Thermocouple
Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature Measurement

Liquid Filled Temperature Gauges:

› These Gauges are filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid
such as used in refrigerators.

› In both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are completely full.

› Any rise in temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the sensor
becomes pressurized.

› The pressure is related to the temperature and it may be indicated on a simple gauge.

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Continued……
Temperature Measurement

Bimetallic Gauges:

› If two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and

heated, difference in the expansion rate causes the strip to
bend.

› In Industrial type, strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a

tube. One end is fixed at the bottom of the tube and the other
turns and moves a pointer on a dial.

› The outward appearance is very similar to the pressure type.

They can be made to operate limit switches and set off alarms.

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Continued……
Secondary Instruments

Secondary Instruments are classified as follows :

› Vertical Panel mounted instruments like Analytical Recorder, Electrical meters etc.

› Horizontal Panel mounted instruments like Bargraph indicator, Set point setter etc.
Analytical Recorder

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Electrical Meters

Voltmeter Ammeter

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Bar Graph Indicator

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Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

Most of the Power generation in India is Thermal Power. That means Coal or Gas is used as fuel to heat water in the boiler.
This water becomes steam and this steam runs the turbine to produce electricity by means of Generator connected with the
turbine

The turbine is a masterpiece of engineering. Its design is very complicated and intricate. The turbine is very costly and is very
carefully manufactured and installed in a power station. Boiler, various tubes and pipes that make the Power Plant are also
important. All this is dependent on good quality of steam. If the steam produced is of bad quality, it starts damaging this
equipment by means of corrosion. The turbine/boiler and various tubes/pipes in the power plant start getting damaged and
eventually fail.

It is therefore essential to arrest all the elements that cause the corrosion effects of various kinds. It calls for modern methods
that keep a 24-hours-a-day vigil on these elements, however small these may be. This can be precisely done by an On-line
Steam and Water Analysis System, popularly termed as SWAS.

The power plants using steam need some water source. As all of us know, water is no more a free resource. Further, the
quality of water available from rivers, dams or underground sources is deteriorating every day. If we use such contaminated
water for generating steam, it will have an immediate impact on the complete plant and machinery in the power plant, as there
will be a lot of erosion and corrosion that will take place.

In any power plant running on steam, the purity of boiler feed water and steam is absolutely crucial; especially to steam
turbine, steam boiler, super heater, condenser and other steam equipment. To prevent damage of steam turbine, steam boiler
and other apparatus due to scaling and corrosion, on line steam and water analysis of critical parameters is inevitable. A well-
engineered SWAS can measure all these parameters accurately and reliably. As we know, anything that can be measured
accurately can be controlled accurately,
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Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

WHAT ARE THESE CRITICAL PARAMETERS ?

• pH
• CONDUCTIVITY
• HYDRAZINE
• SILICA
• DISSOLVED OXYGEN
• SODIUM
OTHER PARAMETERS
• Monitoring of other parameters such as alkalinity, hardness, calcium, chloride, phosphate, dissolved ozone is also required,
depending on the size of the plant and the quality of water / steam equipment.

Let us see the significance of each of these parameters :

pH
 In a soln. pH approximates but is not equal to p[H], the –ive logarithm (base10) of the molar concentration of dissolved
hydronium ions(H3O+); a low pH indicates high concentration of hydronium ions& a high pH indicates low concentration.It is
a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soln. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

 Ultra pure water has a neutral pH value of 7. A pH less than 7 is acidic and greater than 7 is basic or alkaline. In the steam
circuit the normal practice is to keep the pH value of feed water at slightly alkaline levels. Accurate pH analysis can therefore
help in preventing the corrosion of pipe work and other equipment 73
 Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity (G), the inverse of Resistivity (R) is the ability of a material to conduct electric current. Since the charge on ions in
solution facilitates the conductance of electrical current, the conductivity of a solution is proportional to its ion concentration.

• Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate and phosphate
anions (ions that carry a –ive charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron and aluminium cations (ions that carry a +ive
charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well and therefore have
a low conductivity when in water.
• Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is
reported as Conductivity at 25 Degrees Celsius (250C).
• The basic unit of measurement of conductivity is the mho(Ω) or siemens(s).Conductivity is measured in micromhos per
centimeter(µΩ/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter(µs/cm). Distilled water has a conductivity in the range of 0.5 t0 3.0µs/cm.
Industrial waters can range as high as 10000µs/cm
• Ultra-pure water or steam is almost a bad conductor of electricity. It becomes conductive only when there is some
contamination. Therefore conductivity measurement can give a quick indication of steam contamination.
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Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

 HYDRAZINE (N2H4)
Hydrazine is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula N2H4. It is a colourless liquid with an ammonia-like odour. However,
hydrazine has physical properties that are closer to those of water. Hydrazine is highly toxic and dangerously unstable, and is
usually handled while in solution for safety reasons.

• The use of hydrazine as an oxygen scavenger and a source of Feed water alkalinity has advantages that are well known.
a) It prevents frothing in the boiler.
b) It minimizes deposits on metal surfaces.
c) It removes the dissolved oxygen in the steam by chemical action.

• Hydrazine does not produce corrosive gases at high temperatures and pressures, and in application, reacts with oxygen to
form nitrogen and water:
N2H4 + O2 → 2 H2O + N2
Hydrazine does’nt contribute solids to the system, so boiler blowdown is reduced.
• Hydrazine helps to maintain a protective magnetite(Fe3O4) layer over steel surface, and maintain feed water alkalinity to
prevent acidic corrosion. It is essential to doze hydrazine correctly, which can be done with the help of an on-line Hydrazine
analyzer. 75
Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

 SILICA (SiO2)
• Most boilers making steam for turbines rarely have excessive carryover of boiler water in the steam. While, silica deposits
in turbine can occur even when boiler water carryover is negligible. The reason is: steam selectively “picks up” silica from
the boiler water, dissolves it, and carries it to the turbines, where it redeposit. The key to minimizing silica carryover is in
keeping the boiler water silica content below certain levels, the concentration depending on operating pressures.

• Steam is a solvent for silica. The maximum solubility of silica in steam is a direct function of both the steam density and
temperature. As steam temperature or density decreases, the silica solubility also decreases. Since pressure affects steam
density and has a bearing on steam temperature, the solubility of silica in steam increases with pressure.

• The presence of silica in steam can lead to deposition in superheater tubes and on the turbine blades. Small deposits on
the turbine blades can result in a loss of efficiency, whilst larger deposits can cause permanent mechanical damage.

• In order that the turbines are operated at maximum performance, continuous monitoring of silica in steam, boiler
water and feed water is highly recommended. It is also essential to check silica levels at the source of water input
to the plant.
76
Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

 DISSOLVED OXYGEN ( DO2 )

• At high temperatures dissolved oxygen attacks and causes corrosion of components and piping. The result is pitting,
which may eventually causes puncturing and failures.
• Dissolved oxygen is also responsible for leakage at joints and gaskets.Hence it is essential to measure and control it
precisely.
Do you Know that 10 ppb of DO2 in a boiler of 450TPH creates 90 Kg. of rust per year !

SODIUM (Na)
• The presence of sodium signals contamination with potentially corrosive anions, e.g. chlorides, sulphates etc.
• Under conditions of high pressure and temperature, sodium salts are responsible for stress corrosion – cracking of boiler
and superheater tubes.
• Sodium is available in abundance in the environment and it enters even from small openings. Sodium measurement can

thus reveal possible leakage conditions anywhere in the steam circuit, including condenser sections.

77
Importance of SWAS or Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

PHOSPHATE (PO4)

• Phosphate hideout is a phenomenon that causes boiler water control difficulties. It is defined as the disappearance, by
precipitation or absorption, of the ionic phosphate (PO4) species, in the boiler water under high heat transfer or high load
conditions.
• The best way to recognize phosphate hideout is to graph load changes, pH, and phosphate over a period of time. The
variations of the graphs will clearly indicate that phosphate increases with decreasing load, and that the pH decreases with
decreasing load.
• Events which may lead to phosphate hideout include:
1) Start-up after chemical cleaning.
2) Changes in unit load.
3) Changes in burner configuration.
& 4) Metal oxide ingress and deposition on heat transfer surfaces.
• Phosphate hideout causes confusion, frustration over uncontrollable water chemistry, and corrosion. Some phosphate-
related corrosion may be severe.

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Online SWAS Analytical Instruments in Power Plant

Sl.No Samples taken from SWAS ON-LINE ANALYSERS

pH Ks Kc N2H4 SiO2 DO Na PO4

1. FW at Economiser I/L     

2. CBD from Boiler Drum    

3. Saturated Steam   

4. Superheated Steam   

5. Condensate bef. LP Htr.   

6. CEP Discharge      

7. DM Make-up Water 

8. Deaerator Feed Water 

9. DMCW Aux. Header O/L 

10. DMCW (B) HF O/L 

79
Position of Sample Extract for Conductivity measurement in Power Plant

80
Position of Sample Extract for pH measurement in Power Plant

81
Position of Sample Extract for Silica measurement in Power Plant

82
Position of Sample Extract for Sodium measurement in Power Plant

83
Position of Sample Extract for Hydrazine & PO4 measurement

84
Water Chemistry Parameters Limits

Unit-1 Unit-2

85
Analytical Instruments

Analytical Instruments are classified as follows :

1. Steam & Water quality Analysis System

2. Flue gas / Emission quality Analysis System

Method of Analysis:
› Sampling
› Continuous

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Analytical Instruments are classified as follows

Steam & Water quality Analyzers

› Specific Conductivity
› Cat-ion Conductivity
› pH
› Silica
› Sodium
› Turbidity

Flue gas / Emission quality Analyzers

› Flue gas Oxygen analyzer
› Sox, NOx, CO analyzer
› Opacity meter

87
Analytical Instruments

Conductivity Analyser

› Conductivity is a measure of the total concentration of ions, it is ideal for monitoring

demineralizer performance. It is rarely suitable for measuring how well specific ionic

contaminants are being removed.

› Ions increase the water's ability to conduct electricity. Common ions in water that

conduct electrical current include sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium.

Because dissolved salts and other inorganic chemicals conduct electrical current,

conductivity increases as salinity increases.

88
Analytical Instruments

Silica Analyser

› It is designed to provide continuous monitoring or programmed sampling

of silica concentration.

› The principle used in silica analyser is colorimetric principle. The colour of

the final solution is measured.

› Silica parameter is very important for Steam Turbine injection Steam quality

check.

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Analytical Instruments

Sodium Analyser

› The analyzer uses an ion-selective electrode designed to specifically

measure sodium in the water.

› The sample water is treated with a reagent to suppress interference

from all other ions in the water, and the electrode measures the

sodium concentration in the water as it flows by in a continuous

stream.

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Analytical Instruments

Flue Gas Oxygen Analyser

› The sensor is based on the zirconium oxide is the conductor of oxygen ion. The Zirconium exhibits very high resistance at room

temperature. Heating the element allows different partial oxygen concentration of gases to come into contact with opposite of

the zirconia, creating an oxygen concentration cell.

91
Analytical Instruments

NOx Analyser

› The method is based upon the chemiluminescent

reaction between ozone and nitric oxide (NO) to form

nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and oxygen.

› We measure NOx using a discrete analyzer or as

part of a multi-gas analyzer.

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Analytical Instruments

CO Analyser

› The CO2 Analyser is a Analytical instrument that measures the

concentration of CO2 gas in the process.

› The CO2 Analyzer use multi-component analysis by using Non Dispersive

Infrared (NDIR) sensor technology for consistent, precise process gas

measurement.

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Analytical Instruments

Opacity Meter

› The measurement involves a light source emitting light of intensity E0 and

a light detector that measures the intensity of the light beam (E) once it

passes through the smoke.

› Opacity is a measure of light attenuation , the fraction of light lost in

crossing the stack. An opacity monitor measures this value and reports it

directly.

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 Any Questions Please

Anlass Thema der Präsentation 95

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You
May 02, 2019 Common English Mistakes 96