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CALCULUS

For Business & Economics


3rd Edition

Felipe L. Commandante , Jr.


WHAT IS CALCULUS?
 Calculus is Latin for stone or pebble and the
ancient Romans used stones for counting and
arithmetic.
 In its most basic sense, calculus is just that - a
form of counting.

 Calculus was developed by two different men in


the seventeenth century. Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (1646-1716), a self-taught German
mathematician, and Isaac Newton (1642-1727),
an English scientist, both developed calculus in
the 1680s.
While Leibniz invented it ten years later than
Newton, he published his findings twenty years
earlier, and that overlap led to decades of
controversy about which man reached his
conclusions first. Today it is generally agreed that
both men developed calculus independently.
Calculus is the mathematics of change, of
calculating problems that are continually evolving.
This is possible by breaking such problems into
infinitesimal steps, solving each of those steps, and
adding all the results. Rather than doing each step
individually, calculus allows these computations to
be done simultaneously.
TWO BRANCHES OF CALCULUS
There are two primary branches of calculus:
differential calculus and integral calculus.

Differential calculus, or differentiation, is used


primarily to determine the slope or steepness of a
curve, also called a curve's derivative. Slope is a
rate of change in a curve - a very steep curve is
changing very fast - and calculus is used when a
curve is very complicated, such as calculating the
slope of a mountain or the speed of a roller
coaster.
Differential calculus involves any problem that
may be graphed when the desired result is a
single point on that graph. For example, if a
rancher wants to construct a corral with a limited
amount of fence, he can vary the lengths of the
sides of the corral. Using calculus, he could
determine which lengths would enclose the
greatest area and make the largest corral. A
graph could be drawn using every possible
combination of lengths, and the highest point on
that graph - the maximum - would signify the
greatest area.
Integral calculus, or integration, deals with areas
and volumes of complex figures, such as
determining the greatest amount of space or
volume beneath a dome in a stadium design in
order to incorporate as many seats as possible.

To find the area beneath a curve, integration


breaks the area beneath the curve into minute
pieces, determines the area of each piece, and
adds them all together, or integrates them, into a
final answer.
What Is Calculus Used For?
Credit card companies use calculus to set the
minimum payments due on credit card statements
at the exact time the statement is processed by
considering multiple variables such as changing
interest rates and a fluctuating available balance.

Statisticians will use calculus to evaluate survey


data to help develop business plans for different
companies. Because a survey involves many
different questions with a range of possible
answers, calculus allows a more accurate
prediction for appropriate action.
RELATIONS
it is a set of ordered pairs of
mathematical quantities.
Domain – set of first coordinates of the
ordered pairs of that relation.
Range - set of second coordinates of the
ordered of that relation.
For example: Determine the domain and the
range as defined by the relation.
A = { (-2,-1), (-2,1), (-1,-2), (-1.2), (0, -3),
(0, 3), (1, -2), (1,2), (2,-1), (2,1)}
Domain: ?
Range: ?
DOMAINS: { -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 }
RANGES: { -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3}
Sketch the graph.
2. Determine the domain and the range of each
relation.
a) x+y = 3
b) 4x + 3y = 12
c) 2x – 3y = 6
FUNCTIONS (f) is a special type of relation
such that no two ordered pairs of the set
have different second coordinates
corresponding to the same first coordinate.
in symbols, y= f(x) is read as “y is a
function of x” where y is the dependent
variable and x is the independent variable.
Example:
1. If f(x)= 3x -1, find
a. f(-2)
b. f(t)
c. f(t+1)
GRAPH OF A FUNCTION
It is a set of all points corresponding
to the ordered pairs (x,y) that satisfy the
equation defining the function.

Its graph can usually be sketched by


finding a representative group of points
and then connecting them by means of a
smooth curve.
Example:
1.Sketch the graph of the function
f(x)= x2-2
x y
-3 7
a. f(-3) = (-3)2 - 2 = 7 -2 2
b. f(-2) = (-2) 2 – 2 = 2 -1 -1
0 -2
c. f(-1) = (-1) 2 - 2 = -1 1 -1
2. f(x) = -x2+x+2

3. f(x) = x2-6x+9

4. f(x) = x2+4x+4
OPERATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Functions are always combined in various
ways to form new functions.
Let f and g be any two functions.
Then we define the functions as:
1.Addition (f+g) (x) = f(x)+g(x)
2. Subtraction (f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
3. Multiplication (f·g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)
4. Division (f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
EXAMPLE:
1.Let f(x) = 2x+1 and g(x)= x2

a) (f+g)(x)= (2x+1) + x2 = x2+2x+1


b) (f-g)(x)= (2x+1) - x2 = -x2+2x+1
2
c) (f∙ 𝑔)(x)= (2x+1) (x ) = 2x3+x2
𝑓 2𝑥+1
d) ( ) (x) = 𝑥2
𝑔
2. Let f(x)= 5x-2 and g(x)= x-1

3) f(x) = 3x+1 and g(x) = 4-2x

4) f(x) = 2x4-3x2+1 and g(x)= 5x5+1

5) f(x) = x2+2x+2 and g(x)= x6-1

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