NAV 1 Capt

NAVIGATION I
Compasses – Magnetic and Gyro

STCW Code Table A- II/ 1
Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers in

charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or
more
Function:
Navigation at the Operational Level
Competence:
1. Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
2. Determine and allow for compass errors
Learning Outcome:
The cadets must

1. Have a thorough knowledge of the principles of magnetic and gyro-
compasses
2. Be able to determine errors of the magnetic and gyro-compasses, using
celestial and terrestrial means, and to allow for such errors
3. Have an understanding of systems under the control of the master gyro
and have a knowledge of the operation and care of the main types of
gyro-compass
Magnetic and Gyro Compass – Topics

1. Magnetism of the Earth and the Ship's Deviation
2. The Magnetic Compass
3. The Gyro-Compass
4. Compass Course and Bearing Corrections
5. Errors of the Compass and Azimuths
6. Fluxgate Compass
Magnetic and Gyro Compass – Topics

7. Parts of the magnetic compass and their function
8. Errors of the magnetic compass and their correction
9. Principles of Gyro-Compass
10.Gyro-Compass Errors and Corrections
11.Systems under the control of the master gyro and the operation and
care of the main types of gyro-compasses in use at Sea
COMPASS – Magnetic and Gyro
Topic No. 1
The Magnetism of the Earth and the Ship's
Deviation
The Magnetism of the Earth

•Consider the Earth as a huge
magnet surrounded by lines of
magnetic flux connecting its two
magnetic poles.
•These magnetic poles are near, but
not coincidental with the Earth’s
geographical poles.

•Since the north seeking end of a
compass needle is conventionally
called the North Pole or positive
pole, it must therefore be attracted
to a South pole or negative pole.

• Angle of dip – the flux lines enter
the surface of the Earth at different
angles to the horizontal at different
magnetic latitudes, this angle is
called angle of magnetic dip.

•Since the magnetic poles and
geographical piles are not in line, a
compass needle in line with the
Earth’s magnetic field will not
indicate True North but Magnetic
North.

•The angular difference between
the True North and the Magnetic
meridian is called variation.
The Magnetism of the Ship

•The ship under construction or
repair will acquire permanent
magnetism due to hammering and
vibration while sitting stationary in
the Earth’s magnetic field.

•After launching, the ship will lose
some of this original magnetism as
a result of vibration and pounding
in varying magnetic fields.
•The magnetism which remains is
the permanent magnetism.

•A ship also acquires induced
magnetism when placed in the
Earth’s magnetic field.
•This induced magnetism may add
or subtract to the permanent
magnetism of the ship.

• The magnetism of the various
structures of a ship, which tends to
change as a result of cruising,
vibration, or aging, but does not
alter immediately is called
subpermanent magnetism.

• The magnetic compass must be
corrected for the vessel’s
permanent and induced magnetism
so that its operation approximates
that of a completely nonmagnetic
vessel.

• Ship’s magnetic conditions create
magnetic compass deviation and
sectors of sluggishness and
unsteadiness.
• Deviation is defined as deflection
right or left of the magnetic meridian
caused by magnetic properties of the
vessel.
Terminology
1. Ferromagnetic materials - is one that has magnetic properties
similar to those of iron. In other words, you can make a
magnet out of it.
2. Magnetic domain - is a region within a magnetic material in
which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. This means
that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are
aligned with one another and they point in the same direction.
Terminology
3. Hard Iron - in hard iron, the domains will not shift back to their
starting points when the field is taken away. Is used in
permanent magnets.
4. Soft Iron - in soft iron, the domains return to being randomly
aligned when the field is removed.
5. Intensity of magnetization - represents the extent to which
the material is magnetized, defined as the magnetic moment
per unit volume of the magnetized material.
Terminology
6. Permeability - is the measure of the ability of a material to
support the formation of a magnetic field within itself
7. Magnetic susceptibility - is a dimensionless proportionality
constant that indicates the degree of magnetization of a
material in response to an applied magnetic field.
8. Magnetic North - the direction in which the north end of a
compass needle or other freely suspended magnet will point
in response to the earth's magnetic field
Terminology
9. Magnetic poles - a point where the magnetic field is
vertical. This can be determined by measuring the
inclination. The inclination of the Earth's field is 90°
(upwards) at the North Magnetic Pole and
-90°(downwards) at the South Magnetic Pole.
Terminology
10. Secular Variation - Changes in Earth's magnetic field on a
time scale of a year or more
11. Diurnal Change in variation- daily changes which are
caused by the movement of the magnetic poles in an orbit
having a diameter of about 50 miles.
12. Annual Change in variation - the yearly permanent
changes in the earth's magnetic field.
More on the Earth’s Magnetism

•At any location, the Earth's magnetic
field can be represented by a three-
dimensional vector
• A typical procedure for measuring its
direction is to use a compass to
determine the direction of magnetic
North
More on the Earth’s Magnetism

D - Its angle relative to true North
is the declination or variation.
I - Facing magnetic North, the
angle the field makes with the
horizontal is the inclination
or magnetic dip.
F - The intensity of the field is
proportional to the force it
exerts on a magnet.
Another common representation is
in X (North), Y (East) and Z(Down) coordinates.
Topic No. 2
The Magnetic Compass
The Magnetic Compass

•It is the oldest instrument for
navigation and has been a vital tool
for navigators at sea for centuries.
•The compass allows ships to steer a
selected course.
•By taking bearings of visible objects
with a compass, the navigator is also
able to fix a ship's position on a chart.
How does a magnetic compass work?

•The magnetic compass consists of a
magnetized needle allowed to rotate in
a horizontal plane.
•The magnetic field of the Earth causes
a magnetized needle of iron or steel to
swing into a north-south position.
•It gets its source of power from the
earth's magnetic field
How does a magnetic compass work?

The magnetic compass will remain
operative even when a ship is
subjected to the following:
• Electrical power failure
• Fire
• Collision
• Grounding
• Other hazards
Types of Magnetic Compass

There are two (2) basic types:
(a) The dry card Compass
(b) The wet card Compass

The dry card Compass

•The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purposes
especially in bad weather
•Even small disturbances causes the dry card to oscillate.
Wet Card Compass (Marine Compass)

•Marine compasses are usually
liquid-filled. The liquid has a
damping (reducing) effect on
disturbances caused by the motion
of the vessel in rough seas.

•The compass card is mounted
above the magnetic needle
mechanism.
•It is finely balanced on a needle
point, floating and able to swing
around to align with magnetic
north.

•The reading is taken from the
fixed lubber line on the body of the
compass.
•The lubber line is pointed in the
direction of the head of the vessel
for steering on a given bearing. An
example of a marine compass is
shown in cross-section below.

•Gimbals are usually used to mount
marine compasses. These keep the
compass bowl horizontal, even in
heavy rolling and pitching, at sea.
Don't forget that any magnetic compass will

point to magnetic north and readings taken
will require adjustment for declination
(variation).
Magnetic Compass Nomenclature


Magnets (A) - These are four (two in older compasses) cylindrical bundles of
magnetic steel wire or bar magnets which are attached to the compass card
to supply directive force. Some newer compasses have a circular magnet
made of a metallic alloy.

Compass Card (B) - This is an aluminum disc or sometimes rice paper,
graduated in degrees from 0° to 360° . It also shows cardinal and intercardinal
points. North is usually indicated by the fleur de lis figure in addition to the
cardinal point. Being attached to the magnets, the compass card provides a
means of reading direction.

Compass Bowl (C) - This is a bowl-shaped container of nonmagnetic material
(brass) which serves to contain the magnetic elements, a reference mark, and
the fluid. Part of the bottom may be transparent (glass) to permit light to
shine upward against the compass card.

Fluid (D) - This is liquid surrounding the magnetic element. According to
Archimedes principle of buoyancy, a reduction of weight results in a reduction
of friction, making possible closer alignment of the compass needle with the
magnetic meridian. Any friction present will tend to prevent complete
alignment with the magnetic meridian.

Fluid (D) – Commonly, the bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water
(55%) and pure ethyl alcohol (45%) thereby making the mixture to have the
following properties
• Low freezing point about -30˚C
• Small coefficient of expansion
• Does not discolor the card
• Low relative density about 0.93

•Float (E) - This is an aluminum, air-filled chamber in the center of the
compass card. This further reduces weight and friction at the pivot point.

•Expansion Bellows (F) - This is an arrangement in the bottom of the compass
bowl. This operates to keep the compass bowl completely filled with liquid,
allowing for temperature changes. A filling screw facilitates addition of liquid,
which may become necessary notwithstanding the expansion bellows.

•Lubber Line - This is a reference mark on the inside of the compass bowl. It is
aligned with the ship's fore and aft axis or keel line of the ship. The lubber line
is a reference for the reading of direction from the compass card. The reading
of the compass card on the lubber line at any time is the "ship's heading."

•Gimbals - This is a metal ring on two pivots in which the compass bowl is
placed. The compass is also on two pivots which permits it to tilt freely in any
direction and remain almost horizontal in spite of the ship's motion. The
compass rests on the binnacle.

•Gimbals - An important concept is that regardless of the movement of the
ship, the compass card remains fixed (unless some magnetic material is
introduced to cause additional deviation from the magnetic meridian). The
ship, the compass bowl, and the lubber line move around the compass card.
To the observer witnessing this relative motion, it appears that the compass
card moves.
LIMITATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

•Sensitive to any magnetic disturbance.
•Useless at the magnetic poles and is sluggish and unreliable in areas near the
poles.
•Deviation changes as a ship's magnetic properties change. The magnetic
properties also change with changes in the ship's structure or magnetic cargo.
•Deviation changes with heading. The ship as well as the earth may be considered
as a magnet. The effect of the ship's magnetism upon the compass changes with
the heading.
•Does not point to true north.
Magnetic Compass
Draw a Magnetic compass
and name the parts and state
each functions
PRECAUTIONS, CARE AND MAINTENANCE

1. The doors giving access to the corrector magnets should always be kept
locked.
2. The wooden parts of the binnacle should be varnished and not painted, as
paint may cause the doors to jam.
3. The soft iron spheres and their brackets should be painted. This prevents
rust.
PRECAUTIONS, CARE AND MAINTENANCE

4. All magnetic materials like aerials, electrical wires and equipment etc.
should be well away from the compass.
5. The binnacle light should be switched off during daytime.
6. The helmet should always protect the azimuth mirror and the compass
card from sprays, direct sunlight, rain etc. except when bearings are being
actually taken.
VARIATION
Where to get the value of variation on the area?
1. Compass Rose on the navigational charts
2. Isogonic Lines on the navigational charts
3. Most GPS gives value of the variation on certain areas
4. ECDIS
5. Nautical Publications
6. Notice to Mariners
7. Etc…
DEVIATION
• As previously explained, a ship’s magnetic influence will
generally cause the compass needle to deflect from the
magnetic meridian.
• This angle of deflection is called deviation.
• If the north end of the needle points east of the magnetic
meridian, the deviation is easterly; if it points west of the
magnetic meridian, the deviation is westerly.
GIVEN: SHIP’S COURSE = 180 DEG psc
Dev = 2 deg west
Var = 3 deg east
Compute the magnetic course and true course
C = 180
DEV = 2 w (-)
-----------------------------------------
M = 178
VAR = 3 e (+)
------------------------------------------
TRUE = 181 true course
COMPASS HEADING/COURSE/BEARING
DEVIATION
MAGNETIC HEADING/BEARING
VARIATION
TRUE COURSE/HEADING/BEARING
(+) EAST
(-) WEST
COMPASS HEADING/COURSE/BEARING
DEVIATION
MAGNETIC HEADING/BEARING
VARIATION
TRUE COURSE/HEADING/BEARING
(+) EAST
(-) WEST
DEVIATION
Methods of determining Deviation:
• Compare with a magnetic compass of known deviation.
• Determine deviation of the magnetic compass by a range.
DEVIATION
Recording Deviation:
• Deviation is not the same on every heading. Therefore, the
deviation that exists on the various headings must be recorded so
the correction for compass error will be known.
• A process called "swinging ship" is used to determine and record
the deviation your ship is headed through every 15° of the
compass.
DEVIATION
• When the process of swing ship
is completed and the deviation
for the 24 headings recorded,
the deviations are transferred to
a deviation card.
DEVIATION
• Before a final recording is
posted on the deviation card, a
simple graph or deviation curve
is made to plot the recorded
deviations.
Compass Error
• Defined as the angular difference between
the compass direction and the
corresponding true direction, may be easily
computed since it is the algebraic sum of
variation and deviation.
Compass Error
• Compass error must be
applied to the compass
direction to get true direction
and must be applied to true
direction, with a reversal of
the sign, to arrive at
compass direction.
How to get bearings of terrestrial and celestial objects
Equipment:
• Azimuth Circle - a device for
measuring azimuths, consisting of a
graduated ring equipped with a
sighting vane on each side, which fits
concentrically over a compass.
Equipment:
Pelorus – a device for measuring in

degrees the relative bearings
of observed objects.
Also called dumb compass.
Equipment:
Telescopic Alidade – This is similar
to a bearing circle, only it has a
telescope attached to the metal
ring instead of the forward and
after sight vanes.
DEMONSTRATION
Topic No. 3
The Gyro Compass
The Gyro-Compass
• A gyrocompass is a type of
non-magnetic compass which
is based on a fast-spinning
disc and rotation of
the Earth (or another
planetary body if used
elsewhere in the universe) to
automatically find
geographical direction.
The Gyro-Compass
• Gyrocompasses are widely used
for navigation on ships, because they
have two significant advantages
over magnetic compasses
• they find true north
• they are unaffected by
ferromagnetic material
How a Gyro-Compass works
• A spinning gyroscope, if
supported in a gimbaled
frame and spun up, will
maintain the direction it is
pointing toward even if the
frame moves or rotates.
• In a gyrocompass, this
tendency is used to emulate
a magnetic compass.
How a Gyro-Compass works
• At the start of the trip, the axis of the gyrocompass is
pointed toward north using a magnetic compass as a
reference.
• A motor inside the gyrocompass keeps the gyroscope
spinning, so the gyrocompass will continue pointing
toward north and will adjust itself swiftly and accurately
even if the boat is in rough seas or the plane hits
turbulence.
Periodically, the gyrocompass is checked against the
magnetic compass to correct any error it might pick up.
Principles of the Gyroscope
• Consists of a spinning wheel or rotor
within gimbals which permit movement
about three mutually perpendicular axis,
known as the…
• Horizontal Axis
• Vertical Axis
• Spin Axis
PROPERTIES:
• When spun rapidly, the gyroscope
develops gyroscopic inertia tending
to remain spinning in the same plane
indefinitely.
• When a force is applied to change the
alignment of the spin axis of a
gyroscope, the resultant motion is
perpendicular to the direction of the
force. This known as precession.
Drifting - The motion

of the spin axis in the
horizontal plane is
known as drift or the
movement of spin
axis in the direction
Tilting - The motion of
spin axis in the vertical
plane is known as tilt the
angle of elevation or
depression of the spin
axis above or below the
horizontal
• If a gyroscope is placed at the equator with its spin axis
pointing E-W, as the earth turns on its axis, gyroscopic
inertia will tend to keep the plane of rotation constant.
• To the observer, it is the gyroscope which is seen to
rotate, not the earth.
• This effect is called the horizontal earth rate, and is
maximum at the equator and zero at the poles.
• At points between, it is equal to the cosine of the
latitude
• If a gyroscope is placed at the a geographic pole with its spin
axis horizontal, it will appear to rotate about its vertical axis.
This is the vertical earth rate.
• At all points between the equator and the poles, the gyro
appears to turn partly about its horizontal and partly about its
vertical axis, being affected by both horizontal and vertical
rates.
• In order to visualize
these effects,
remember that the
gyro, at whatever
latitude it is placed, is
remaining aligned in
space while the earth
moves beneath it.
Construction of the Gyrocompass
Master Compass
Repeater Compass
Course Recorder Control Panel
Voltage Regulator
Alarm unit
Amplifier Panel
Motor Generator
Gyrocompass Operation
• The gyrocompass depends upon four natural
phenomena:
• Gyroscopic inertia
• Precession
• Earth’s rotation
• Gravity
• To make a gyroscope into a gyrocompass,
the wheel or rotor is mounted in sphere,
called the gyrosphere and the sphere is
then supported in a vertical ring.
• The whole is mounted on a base called
phantom.
• The gyrocompass can be pendulous or
non-pendulous, according to design.
To make it seek and maintain true north, three things are necessary:
• Gyro must be made to stay on the plane of the meridian
• It must be made to remain horizontal
• It must stay in this position regardless of what the vessel does
or where it goes on the earth
To make it seek the meridian:
• A weight is added to the bottom of the vertical ring, causing it to
swing on its vertical axis, this seek to align itself horizontally.
• It will tend to oscillate, so a second weight is added to the side of
the sphere in which the rotor is contained, which dampens the
oscillations until the gyro stays on the meridian.
To make the gyro seek north:
• A system of reservoirs filled with mercury, known as mercury ballistics, is used to
apply force against the spin axis.
• Precession then causes the spine axis to trace an ellipse, one ellipse taking about
84 minutes to complete.
• To dampen this oscillation, the force is applied slightly to the east of the vertical
plane
• This causes the spin axis to trace a spiral instead of an ellipse and eventually
settle on the meridian pointing north.
Gyrocompass Repeaters
•Gyro repeaters mounted on the bridge
wings are located in stands somewhat similar
to the binnacle.
•These instruments display directional
information on the basis of electrical signals
received from the ship's master gyrocompass
Gyrocompass Errors
GYRO ERROR
• Total of the all the combined errors of the gyrocompass
• It is expressed in degrees E or W
• Independent of Earth’s magnetic field, will be constant in one
directions
Gyrocompass Errors
Identify the causes of the following:
• Speed Error
• Latitude Error
• Ballistic Deflection Error
• Ballistic Damping Error
• Quadrantal Error
• Gimballing Error
• Additional errors may be introduced by a malfunctioning or incorrect alignment
with the centerline of the vessel
Gyrocompass Errors
Modern ships use a GPS system or other navigational aids feed
data to the Gyrocompass for correcting the error
Using the Gyrocompass

• Used in most ships in order to detect true north, steer, and find
positions and record courses
• Not influenced by magnetism
• Any error is constant and equal around the horizon
• Can output a signal to repeaters spaced around the vessel
Using the Gyrocompass

• Requires constant source of stable electrical power
• Typically located below decks as close as possible to the center
or roll, pitch and yaw of the ship
• Can be used with azimuth circles and telescopic alidades
Use of Radar with Gyrocompass

SOLAS Regulation 19 - Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational
systems and equipment
2.5 All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to
meeting the requirements of paragraph 2.3 with the exception of
paragraphs 2.3.3 and 2.3.5, and the requirements of paragraph 2.4, have:

2.5.1 A gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their

heading by shipborne non-magnetic means, being clearly readable by the
helmsman at the main steering position. These means shall also transmit
heading information for input to the equipment referred in
paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;

2.3.2 A 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range
and bearing of radar transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions,
buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in
collision avoidance;
Research Project
Print out a sample of a Gyrocompass Operators Manual and:
1.Explain the necessary time for the compass to settle after switching on prior to sailing
2. List the settings to be made or adjusted while the compass is in use
3. Explain how the repeater system is switched on and aligned with the master gyro-compass
4. Describe the alarms fitted to a gyro-compass

Topic No. 4
Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Define the following:
1. True North
2. Magnetic North
3. Compass North
4. Course - True Course, Magnetic Course,
Compass Course
5. Heading – True Heading, Magnetic Heading
6. Bearing - True Bearing, Compass Bearing,
Relative Bearing,

• All information on a chart, including your own plotting, is related
to TRUE North.
• Thus all bearings on a chart are related to TRUE NORTH.
• Magnetic Compasses point to MAGNETIC NORTH, which varies
from True North by an error called VARIATION.
• Gyro Compasses sometimes also are subject to their own errors;
this is called DEVIATION.

• Variation and deviation combined constitute "magnetic
compass error."
• The course on which you want the ship to make good is
the true course, selected from the compass between
two points on a chart.

• Knowing the true course, it is necessary for you to find
the compass course that you must steer to make good
that true course.
• Compass course is found by applying the compass
error, in terms of variation and deviation, to the true
course.
Correcting and Uncorrecting the compass

Rules to use:
1. Compass Least, Error East; Compass Best, Error West
2. Can Dead Man Vote Twice At Election
3. True Virgins Make Dull Company At Weddings
Some typical correction operation follows:

COMPASS DEVIATION MAGNETIC VARIATION TRUE
+ E or - W
120° 1°W 119° 6°E 122°
180° 6°E 186° 3°W 178°
240° 5°W 235° 7°W 228°
+ W or - E

Some typical correction operation follows:
Examples:
True bearing = 273° (T)

Var = 5° W__
Magnetic bearing = 278° (M)
True bearing = 008° (T)

Var = 13° E__
Magnetic bearing = 355° (M)

How to find Compass error using
transit bearings?
• The bearing of Leading lights are
observed through the gyro repeater
and the true bearing of the line
joining them from charts is
compared and error is determined.
Plotting True bearings to get a Fix

What to use:
• Gyro Repeater
• Azimuth Circle
• Pencil and Eraser
• Parallel Ruler or Triangle
Topic No. 5
Errors of the Compass and Azimuths
COMPASS ERROR EXERCISES

The navigator must constantly be concerned about the
accuracy of the ship’s primary and backup compasses, and
should check them regularly.
A regularly annotated compass log book will allow the
navigator to notice developing error before it becomes a
serious problem.

Ways of checking compass error by:
1. Azimuth of the Sun
2. Azimuth of the Moon
3. Azimuth of the Stars
4. Azimuth of the Planets
5. Azimuth of the Polaris
6. Amplitudes (Rising and Setting of the Sun)
7. Transit Bearings or Range Bearings

Exercise No.1 Obtaining the azimuth of the body from
tables, or by formula and calculation using GMT of
observation, information from the Nautical Almanac, LHA of
the body and the observer’s DR position

STEPS USING TABLES:
1. Identify the celestial body and a time GMT plus position Lat.
and Long.
2. From the nautical almanac you can take the Greenwich Hour
Angle (GHA). If your celestial body is a star you will also need
to note down the Sidereal Hour Angle, (SHA). yes and almost
forgot the bodies declination.

3. With the GHA and SHA and your Long it is a simple matter to
work out your Local Hour Angle (LHA)
GHA + SHA +/- Long = LHA If the LHA comes out at over 360
degrees, simply subtract 360.

4. Having your LHA , declination and Latitude go to your Nautical
tables and look in the ABC tables.
Using the LHA, Dec and Lat in Tables A and B you will have two
numbers this you take into the C table and it gives you a third
number.

This is basically your azimuth Lets say it is 059. If your dec is North
the the azimuth is N 059 degrees, east if the body is rising and
west if setting
.. So that would make it either 059 or 301 degrees. This is the true
bearing of the object.

STEPS FOR POLARIS PROBLEM:
On March 17, 2001, at Lat' 33°15.0' N and Long' 045°00.0'W, at 02-00-00
GMT, Polaris bears 358.6° pgc. Find the Tabulated Azimuth of Polaris
Date: 17 March 2001

Time (GMT): 02-00-00
GHA Aries: 204° 43.0'
Longitude: 045° 00.0'W
LHA Aries: 159° 43.0'

Solution:
1. Enter the azimuth section of the Polaris table with the calculated LHA
of Aries. (204° 43.0' minus 045° 00.0'W = 159° 43.0').
2. As it is above 159°, go to the column for LHA Aries between 160° and
169°. Follow that column down and extract the value for the given
latitude.

Solution:
3. Since the increment between tabulated values is so small, visual
interpolation is sufficient. In this case, the azimuth for Polaris for the
given LHA of Aries and the given latitude is 359.3°.
4. Tabulated Azimuth: 359.2°T

BY SOLAR OBSERVATION - Hour angle method:
Where: LHA = local hour angle of sun

Dec = declination of sun
LAT = latitude of observe
AZ = Azimuth of sun

BY SOLAR OBSERVATION – Altitude method:
Where: AZ = Z (when sun is east of the local meridian)

AZ = 360 - Z (when sun is west of the local meridian)
DEC = declination of sun
LAT = latitude of observer
h = vertical angle to the sun corrected for parallax
and refraction

AZIMUTH BY OBSERVATION OF POLARIS:
The equation given for hour angle method for the sun can be used, or the
following:
Where: h = (true altitude of Polaris)

p = 90° - declination Z is west of north when 0o ≤ LHA ≤ 180°
Z is east of north when 180o ≤ LHA ≤ 360°
AZ = Z (when Z is east of north)
AZ = 360 - Z (when Z is west of north)

Exercise No.2 Obtaining the error of the magnetic compass
or gyro compass by comparing the compass bearing of the
body with the true azimuth of the body obtained at the
time of observation

•Gyro Error and Compass Error are basically the same thing, but on different
types of compasses.
•Whenever going away from True, you add West Errors and subtract East
Errors. Going toward True - add East & subtract West
•Memory Aid:
Can Dead Men Vote Twice at elections
True Virgins Make Dull Companions at weddings
GET Gyro + East = True

Example 1
In DR latitude 33° 24.0'N, the azimuth of the sun is 096.5° pgc. After
tabulating the tabulated azimuth of the sun is 97.7°. What is the GE?
Zn 097.7°
Zn (pgc) 096.5°
Gyro Error 1.2°E

Example 2
If the sun is observed rising at 068° T, while the calculated sunriseis 065° T, the
gyro error is 068° - 065° = 3°
To determine the direction of error, use the mnemonic “Gyro Best, Error
West, Gyro Least, Error East.”
In this case, the gyro is higher (“best ”) than the observation, so the error is
3° W.

Exercise No.3 Obtaining from tables or by calculation, using
the observer’s DR position and information from the
Nautical Almanac, the true bearing of a heavenly body on
rising or setting, i.e. solves an amplitude problem

Determine Gyro Error by Amplitude of the Sun
Imagine watching the sunset from your favorite beachside
location. If the date happed to be approximately March or
September 22nd, the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, then the
sun would be setting exactly west–270°T. At any other time of
year, it sets at a different bearing, and that difference from true
west (or east for sunrise) is called “amplitude.”

It is 20 May, you have taken an observation of the rising sun when its
lower limb is approximately 2/3 of a sun’s diameter above the visible
horizon (therefore the sun’s center is on the celestial horizon). The time
of observation is 1000 UTC. Your latitude is 36° N.
a)What is the amplitude of the sun for this date?

b)What true bearing should the sunrise be observed?
c)If you actually observe the sun rising at 068° T, what is the GE?

STEPS:
1. Determine the declination of the sun for the
time of observation using the Nautical Almanac.
The declination at 1000 UTC is N 20° 00’.
2. Determine the ship’s latitude at the

time ofobservation.
Latitude–36° N (given)

STEPS:
3. Enter Table 22 in Bowditch with declination and latitude to determine
the amplitude. Declination: 20° and Latitude: 36°

STEPS:
4. Answer required questions.
a) Amplitude = E 25° N, or 25° north of east.

b) Standard sunrise is 090° T. In the northern hemisphere in spring and
summer, the sun rises north of east. Therefore the calculated sunrise is
090° - 25° = 065° T

STEPS:
4. Answer required questions.
c) If the sun is observed rising at 068° T, while the calculated sunrise is 065°
T, the gyro error is 068° - 065° = 3°W

Exercise No.4 Obtaining the magnetic variation for the
observer’s position, using isogonal lines or other
information on the chart

Isogonic Lines - are lines on the
Earth's surface along which the
declination has the same
constant value, and lines along
which the declination is zero are
called agonic lines.

Compass Rose - A circle graduated in
degrees, clockwise from 0° at the reference
direction to 360° and sometimes also in
compass points.
Compass roses are placed at convenient
locations on the Mercator chart to facilitate
measurement of direction.
The compass rose can be used by the
mariner to help lay out a course with a
protractor.

Exercise No.5 Applying variations to the error of the
magnetic compass to find the deviations for the direction of
the ship’s head

Chart Aus 823 gives the following information on the compass
rose to the south of St Bees Island:
Mag Var 8°40’E (1979) Increasing about 2’ annually.


In 2015 the variation will have increased by 2’ each year for 36
years, a total of 72’. Adding this to 8°40’ we find that the
variation for 2015 is 9°52’E
Now we will consider Deviation.


Sample 1 Sample 3
CE = 3°W CE = 1°30’W
Var = 9°52’E__ Var = 5°06’W__
Dev = 12°52’W Dev = 3°36’E
Sample 2 Sample 4
CE = 4°E CE = 2°12’E
Var = 9°52’E__ Var = 5°06’W__
Dev = 5°52’W Dev = 7°18’E

Exercise No.6 Calculating compass error and gyro error,
from transit or charted range bearings and bearings to
distant fixed objects

COMPASS ERROR BY TRANSIT BEARINGS
When two well charted objects are in transit, a compass bearing is taken.
The true bearing is taken from the chart using parallel rulers.
Comparison of the compass bearing and the true bearing gives the compass
error.

A transit bearing when two or more objects lie on the same line.

Example:
True Bearing 115°

Compass Bearing 120°
Compass Error 5°W
Variation 7°W
Deviation 2°E

Example:
True Bearing 050°

Compass Bearing 033°
Compass Error 17°W
Variation 11°W
Deviation 6°E
Sample COMPASS
ERROR form
Topic No. 6
Fluxgate Compasses
Fluxgate Compasses
• The basic fluxgate compass is a
simple electromagnetic device that
employs two or more small coils of
wire around a core of highly
permeable magnetic material, to
directly sense the direction of the
horizontal component of the
earth's magnetic field.
Fluxgate Compasses
• Fluxgate compasses and gyrocompasses complement one another
nicely.
• The fluxgate provides a directional reference that's stable over the long
term, apart from changing magnetic disturbances, and the gyrocompass
is accurate over the short-term, even against acceleration and heeling
effects.
Fluxgate Compasses
• The fluxgate compass is used in ships mainly for the purpose of steering.
• Since the compass is an electronic one, the scope of errors is greatly
reduced.
• In addition to manual steering, such a compass can also be utilized when
the ship is on autopilot.
• Even chartplotters and radars use this system to provide them with accurate
geographic indications.
Fluxgate Compasses
ADVANTAGES:
1. Solid state electronics, no moving parts
2. Operation ate very low power
3. Easy back-up power from independent sources
4. Standardized digital output
5. Zero friction, drift or wear
6. Compact, lightweight and inexpensive
7. Rapid start-up and self-alignment
8. Low sensitivity to vibration, shock and temperature changes
9. Self-correcting
Fluxgate Compasses
DISADVANTAGES:
However, the disadvantage of having an electronic compass is that
• If there is a complete lack of electricity on the ship then the device will not
function making the navigators rely again on the magnetic compass.
• The parts used in the compass have to be constantly checked. If there is any
problem even with a small part of the device, the directions provided by the
compass will be faulty leading to a lot of problems for the navigators.
Fluxgate Compasses
STANDARD OPERATION MODES:
1. Set Course Mode – a course can be set and be
remembered by the system which then provides the
helmsman a graphic steering aid.
2. Display Response Damping – a switch is used to change
the rate of damping and update of the display in
response to changes in sea condition and ship’s speed.
Fluxgate Compasses
3. Auto-Compensation – used to determine the deviation
curve for the vessel as its steams in a complete circle.
Automatically computes correction factors.
4. Continuous Auto-Compensation – runs the
compensation algorithm each time the ship completes a
360 degree turn in two minutes.
Fluxgate Compasses
5. Pre-set Variation – Allows the application of magnetic
variation to the heading, resulting in a true output
(assuming the unit has been properly compensated and
aligned).
Fluxgate Compasses
Transmitting Magnetic Compasses
A transmitting magnetic compass (TMC) is used to take the
magnetic heading and convert it into a digital signal. This
can be used for a variety of reasons including:
• A back up heading to the auto pilot
• An independent off course alarm
• Showing the magnetic heading in more than one place
Fluxgate Compasses
Advantages of the TMC repeater system:
1. Extra repeaters can be installed simply to provide
information at other stations (Chart table, Masters cabin
etc)
2. Steering and Digital display in one repeater
3. Reduced Shipyard Installation time saving on costs.
4. Not affected by vibration and image distortion.
Topic No. 7
The parts of the magnetic compass and
their function
SOLAS Regulation
RESEARCH:
1. The requirements of SOLAS chapter V - Regulation 19, in
regard to the requirements for the carriage of magnetic
compasses
2. The ships must also be fitted with a pelorus, or other
means, to take bearings over an arc of 360° of the horizon.
SOLAS Regulation
SOLAS CHAPTER V, REGULATION 19.2.1:
"All ships irrespective of size shall have:
1. a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass, or other means,
independent of any power supply, to determine the ship's heading and
display the reading at the main steering position.
2. a pelorus or compass bearing device, or other means, independent of
any power supply, to take bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360°".
Review on the Magnetic Compass Nomenclature


Magnets (A) - These are four (two in older compasses) cylindrical bundles of
magnetic steel wire or bar magnets which are attached to the compass card
to supply directive force. Some newer compasses have a circular magnet
made of a metallic alloy.

Compass Card (B) - This is an aluminum disc or sometimes rice paper,
graduated in degrees from 0° to 360° . It also shows cardinal and intercardinal
points. North is usually indicated by the fleur de lis figure in addition to the
cardinal point. Being attached to the magnets, the compass card provides a
means of reading direction.

Compass Bowl (C) - This is a bowl-shaped container of nonmagnetic material
(brass) which serves to contain the magnetic elements, a reference mark, and
the fluid. Part of the bottom may be transparent (glass) to permit light to
shine upward against the compass card.

Fluid (D) - This is liquid surrounding the magnetic element. According to
Archimedes principle of buoyancy, a reduction of weight results in a reduction
of friction, making possible closer alignment of the compass needle with the
magnetic meridian. Any friction present will tend to prevent complete
alignment with the magnetic meridian.

Fluid (D) – Commonly, the bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water
(55%) and pure ethyl alcohol (45%) thereby making the mixture to have the
following properties
• Low freezing point about -30˚C
• Small coefficient of expansion
• Does not discolour the card
• Low relative density about 0.93

•Float (E) - This is an aluminum, air-filled chamber in the center of the
compass card. This further reduces weight and friction at the pivot point.

•Expansion Bellows (F) - This is an arrangement in the bottom of the compass
bowl. This operates to keep the compass bowl completely filled with liquid,
allowing for temperature changes. A filling screw facilitates addition of liquid,
which may become necessary notwithstanding the expansion bellows.

•Lubber Line - This is a reference mark on the inside of the compass bowl. It is
aligned with the ship's fore and aft axis or keel line of the ship. The lubber line
is a reference for the reading of direction from the compass card. The reading
of the compass card on the lubber line at any time is the "ship's heading."

•Gimbals - This is a metal ring on two pivots in which the compass bowl is
placed. The compass is also on two pivots which permits it to tilt freely in any
direction and remain almost horizontal in spite of the ship's motion. The
compass rests on the binnacle.

•Gimbals - An important concept is that regardless of the movement of the
ship, the compass card remains fixed (unless some magnetic material is
introduced to cause additional deviation from the magnetic meridian). The
ship, the compass bowl, and the lubber line move around the compass card.
To the observer witnessing this relative motion, it appears that the compass
card moves.
Magnetic Correctors
Correctors are present in the form of:
1. Vertical permanent heeling magnet in the central vertical tube,
2. Fore-and-aft B permanent magnets in their trays,
3. Athwartship C permanent magnets in their trays,
4. Vertical soft iron Flinders bar in its external tube,
5. Soft iron spheres.
The heeling magnet is the only corrector that corrects for both permanent
and induced effects, and consequently must be readjusted occasionally with
radical changes in latitude of the ship.
Magnetic Correctors
Performance Standards
Library Research Activity:
List down the Performance Standards for Magnetic Compass as per IMO
Performance Standards
The Equipment must comply with the IMO Performance Standards as follows:
•Magnetic compasses - Resolution A.382(X)

•Transmitting magnetic heading devices – Resolution MSC.86(70), annex 2
•SOLAS Ch. V Reg 19 requires all ships of 150 GT and over, and all passenger
ships to carry a spare magnetic compass (or equivalent.)
Topic No. 8
The errors of the magnetic compass and
their correction
Deviation
Compass Deviation is the difference between magnetic north and the
direction in which the compass is pointing. Both variation and
deviation are measured in degrees east (+) or west (-).
Deviation
Causes:
All vessels have numerous magnetic fields. Some of these fields are
permanently built into the structure of the vessel and some are
caused by the type of cargo carried, electronic instruments, electrical
appliances, position of machinery and equipment, etc.
Deviation
• These magnetic fields can combine to cause the compass needle to point away,
or deviate, from magnetic north. The amount of deviation can vary considerably from
heading to heading as the vessel's magnetism is influenced by the earth's own.
• The vessel's soft iron magnetism changes with the orientation and location of the
vessel and is also known as induced magnetism.
• Hard iron magnetism remains constant, is built into the vessel and is also known
as permanent magnetism. Equipment, machinery, cargo, etc can produce both
permanent and induced magnetic fields.
Deviation
• The aim of the compass adjuster is to nullify the effect of the unwanted magnetic
fields by placing correctors (magnets and soft iron) adjacent to the compass.
• These create equal but opposing magnetic fields, thus eliminating the deviating
fields around the compass, enabling it to align correctly.
• Each axis, vertical, longitudinal and athwartships is treated separately.
Swinging the compass, swinging the ship

• As the operation is sometimes more accurately called as the ship swings around the
compass card which, ideally, remains pointing north,
• Involves taking the vessel to a suitable location in open water with plenty of room for
maneuvering.
• With the vessel steady on each of the eight primary compass points, existing compass
headings or bearings are compared with what we know the actual magnetic headings or
bearings should be, the difference being the deviation.

During the process, any magnetic fields, created by the ship's structure, equipment, etc,
which cause the compass to deviate are reduced or, if possible, eliminated, by creating equal
but opposite magnetic fields using compensating correctors.

These are placed inside the compass binnacle or adjacent to the compass:
• Magnets are aligned fore and aft and athwartships to create horizontal magnetic fields to
compensate for the permanent horizontal components of the ship's magnetism.
• Soft iron correcting spheres or plates and the Flinders bar compensate for
the induced magnetism caused by the effect the earth's magnetic field has on the ship's
magnetism.
• Heeling error magnets compensate for the vertical component of the ship's magnetism.

The timing and logistics of this operation are often governed by
• the tide,
• the weather and
• other vessels in the vicinity.

The time it takes to swing and adjust the compass is also influenced by the condition and
accessibility of the compass and correctors, the maneuverability of the vessel, the skill of the
helmsman and the complexity of, and reasons for, the deviating magnetic fields involved.

On successful completion of compass swing, a table recording any remaining residual
deviation and a statement as to the good working order of the compass will be issued.
A current deviation card / certificate of adjustment is a legal requirement on all sea going
commercial vessels.

Deviation can be determined by a number of methods:
• The sun's azimuth or known bearings of distant objects, such as a mountain peak or
lighthouse are considered most accurate.
• In certain circumstances, such as poor visibility, calibration is carried out by making
comparisons with other navigation instruments, such as a gyro or GPS compass.

GPS compasses are normally accurate to within a degree or so with the vessel on a steady
heading but are often useless on a swinging vessel. All navigation instruments, whether
portable or fixed, including GPS compasses, should themselves be checked for error each
time they are used for calibrating a magnetic compass.
Why is it necessary to swing the compass regularly?

Over a period of time and after certain events, the addition or removal of equipment
or the carriage of magnetic cargo such as iron ore, the vessel's magnetic fields may
change, altering the residual deviation of the compass. In some circumstances the
changes can be quite dramatic.

New steel vessels will have their compass adjusted when first commissioned. It has
been known for a one or two year old vessel to record deviation as high as 30 to 40
degrees, as the residual magnetic fields created during the building process gradually
dissipate.

Navigators of sea going vessels are required to observe and record compass error daily
whilst on passage. These observations are important, not only for safe navigation, but
also to assist the compass adjuster in making an accurate analysis of the causes of
deviation, should the compass require adjustment.

National marine agencies specify that commercial vessels have their compass
adjusted only by a person qualified and authorized to do so. International standards
for magnetic compasses and compass adjusting are governed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) SOLAS 74 Convention as amended.
How long is a deviation card valid?

ISO 25862 : 2009 (E): States that all SOLAS vessels should have their compass
swung/adjusted and a new deviation card issued at maximum two yearly intervals.
When a new vessel is commissioned, compass deviation on any heading should be no
more than 3°. Thereafter, deviation on any heading should be 5° or less.
How long is a deviation card valid?

Vessels transiting the Panama Canal are required by the canal authorities to have had
a valid compass deviation card issued within the previous 12 months.
Many maritime authorities and organizations stipulate that the magnetic compass is
to be swung and adjusted annually. Prudent mariners and vessel operators will
always ensure that the compass is regularly checked and properly adjusted.
Compass Adjustment
In addition to regular routine checking of the compass for deviation, and adjustment for
survey compliance, all sea going vessels should have their compass inspected, swung and
adjusted, and a new deviation card issued, when any of the following apply:
♦ On a new vessel
♦ After periods of lay up
♦ When a new compass is installed
♦ When deviation exceeds 5 degrees on any heading
♦ After trauma, such as lightning strike, grounding, fire, etc
♦ When compass performance is unsatisfactory or unreliable
Compass Adjustment
♦ When a record of compass deviation has not been maintained
♦ After alterations & additions to vessel's structure & equipment
♦ After repairs involving welding, cutting, grinding, etc which may affect the compass
♦ When electrical or magnetic equipment close to the compass is added, removed or
altered
♦ When compass deviation does not appear to correspond with that shown on deviation
card
♦ When the validity period of the deviation card set by the national or state marine
authority is due to expire
Permanent magnetism and its effects on the compass

The total permanent magnetic field effect at the compass may be broken
into three components mutually 90° apart:
1. The effect of the vertical permanent component is the tendency to
tilt the compass card and, in the event of rolling or pitching of the
ship to create oscillating deflections of the card.
2. Oscillation effects that accompany roll are maximum on north and
south compass headings, and those that accompany pitch are
maximum on east and west compass headings
3. The horizontal B and C components of permanent magnetism cause
varying deviations of the compass as the ship swings in heading on
an even keel.

Plotting these deviations against compass
heading will produce sine and cosine curves, as
shown in figure. These deviation curves are called
semicircular curves because they reverse
direction in 180°.
The permanent magnetic semicircular deviations can be

illustrated by a series of simple sketches, representing a
ship on successive compass headings.
The permanent magnetic semicircular deviations can be

illustrated by a series of simple sketches, representing a
ship on successive compass headings.
Induced magnetism and its effects on the compass

Induced magnetism varies with the strength of the surrounding field, the mass of metal, and the
alignment of the metal in the field. Since the intensity of the earth's magnetic field varies over the
earth's surface, the induced magnetism in a ship will vary with latitude, heading, and heel of the
ship.
With the ship on an even keel, the resultant vertical induced magnetism, if not directed through the
compass itself, will create deviations that plot as a semicircular deviation curve.
As long as the ship is in the same magnetic latitude, its vertical induced pole swinging about the
compass will produce the same effect on the compass as a permanent pole swinging about the
compass
Generally, this semicircular deviation will be a B sine curve, as

shown in figure

The deviation resulting from the earth's field induction of these
symmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron are illustrated in
figure below, showing the ship on various compass headings. The
other heading effects may be similarly studied.

Asymmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron may exist about the compass in a pattern similar to one
of those in the figure below
Summary of Compass Errors and Adjustments

Compass operation
The figure illustrates a point about compass
operation. Not only is an uncorrected compass
subject to large deviations, but there will be
sectors in which the compass may sluggishly turn
with the ship and other sectors in which the
compass is too unsteady to use.
Compass operation
Correction of compass errors is generally achieved by applying correctors so as to reduce the
deviations of the compass for all headings of the ship.
Correction could be achieved, however, by applying correctors so as to equalize the directive

forces across the compass position for all headings of the ship.
The deviation method is more generally used because it utilizes the compass itself to indicate
results, rather than some additional instrument for measuring the intensity of magnetic fields.
Compass operation
Listed below are several reasons for correcting the errors of the magnetic compass:
(1) It is easier to use a magnetic compass if the deviations are small.

(2) Although a common belief is that it does not matter what the deviations are, as long as they
are known, this is in error inasmuch as conditions of sluggishness and unsteadiness
accompany large deviations and consequently make the compass operationally unsatisfactory.
This is the result of unequal directive forces on the compass as the ship swings in heading.
(3) Furthermore, even though the deviations are known, if they are large they will be subject to
appreciable change with heel and latitude changes of the ship.
PRACTICAL PROCEDURES FOR MAGNETIC COMPASS ADJUSTMENT

Dockside tests and adjustments
1. Should the compass have a small bubble, compass fluid may be added by means of the filling
plug on the side of the compass bowl. If an appreciable amount of compass liquid has leaked out,
a careful check should be made on the condition of the sealing gasket and filling plug. U.S. Navy
compass liquid may be a mixture of 45% grain alcohol and 55% distilled water, or a kerosene-type
fluid.

2. The compass should be removed from the ship and taken to some place free from all magnetic
influences except the earth's magnetic field for tests of moment and sensibility. These tests
involve measurements of the time of vibration and the ability of the compass card to return to a
consistent reading after deflection.

3. A careful check should be made on the spheres and Flinders bar for residual magnetism. Move
the spheres as close to the compass as possible and slowly rotate each sphere separately. Any
appreciable deflection (2° or more) of the compass needles resulting from this rotation indicates
residual magnetism in the spheres.

Cont…
3. This test may be made with the ship on any steady heading. The Flinders bar magnetization
check is preferably made with the ship on steady east or west compass heading. To make this
check:
(a) note the compass reading with the Flinders bar in the holder;
(b) invert the Flinders bar in the holder and again note the compass reading.
Any appreciable difference (2° or more) between these observed readings indicates residual
magnetism in the Flinders bar.

4. Correct alignment of the lubber's line of the compass, gyro repeater, and pelorus with the
fore-and-aft line of the ship is of major importance. Such a misalignment will produce a constant
A error in the curve of deviations. All of these instruments may be aligned correctly with the
fore-and-aft line of the ship by using the azimuth circle and a metal tape measure.

5. Expeditious compass adjustment is dependent upon the application of the various correctors
in an optimum sequence so as to achieve the final adjustment with a minimum number of steps.
Certain adjustments may be made conveniently at dockside so as to simplify the adjustment
procedures at sea.

6. Having adjusted the length of Flinders bar, place the spheres on the bracket arms at the best
approximate position. If the compass has been adjusted previously, place the spheres at the best
position as indicated by the previous deviation table. In the event the compass has never been
adjusted, place the spheres at midposition on the bracket arms.

7. The next adjustment is the positioning of the heeling magnet by means of a properly balanced
dip needle.
8. These three adjustments at dockside - Flinders bar, spheres, and heeling magnet - will
properly establish the conditions of mutual induction and shielding on the compass, such that a
minimum of procedures at sea will complete the adjustment.

Expected Errors:
• The A error is more generally caused by the miscalculation of azimuths or by physical

misalignments, rather than magnetic effects of asymmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft
iron.
• The B error results from two different causes, namely: the fore-and-aft permanent magnetic
field across the compass, and a resultant asymmetrical vertical induced effect forward or aft of
the compass.
• The C error has two causes, namely: the athwartship permanent magnetic field across the
compass, and a resultant asymmetrical vertical induced effect athwartship of the compass.

Expected Errors:
• The D error is due only to induction in the symmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron,
and requires correction by spheres, generally athwartship of the compass.
• The existence of E error of appreciable magnitude is rare, since it is caused by induction in the
asymmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron.

Adjustment procedures at sea
Before proceeding with the adjustment at sea, the following precautions should be observed:
(1) Secure all effective magnetic gear in the normal seagoing position.
(2) Make sure the degaussing coils are secured, using the reversal sequence, if necessary. The
adjustments are made with the ship on an even keel, swinging from heading to heading
slowly, and after steadying on each heading for at least 2 minutes to avoid Gaussin error

Most adjustments can be made by trial and error, or by routine procedure. However, it is more
desirable to follow some analytical procedure whereby the adjuster is always aware of the
magnitude of the errors on all headings as a result of his movement of the different correctors.
Two such methods are presented:

Method 1 Tabulating anticipated deviations - Analysis method

Method 2 Tabulating anticipated deviations - One-swing method

Deviation curves
The last step, after completion of either of the above methods of adjustment, is to secure all
correctors in position and to swing for residual deviations. These residual deviations are for
undegaussed conditions of the ship, which should be recorded together with details of corrector
positions.

Deviation curves
On these swings extreme care should be exercised in taking bearings or azimuths and in
steadying down on each heading since this swing is the basis of standard data for that particular
compass. If there are any peculiar changeable errors, such as movable guns, listing of the ship, or
anticipated decay from deperming, which would effect the reliability of the compass, they should
also be noted on the deviation card at this time.
TYPICAL DEVIATION CURVE AND THE ESTIMATION OF APPROXIMATE

COEFFICIENTS

COEFFICIENTS

COEFFICIENTS
Reasons for analysis

This method of estimating approximate coefficients is convenient for:
(1) Analyzing an original deviation curve in order to anticipate necessary corrections.
(2) Analyzing a final deviation curve for the determination of additional refinements.
(3) Simplifying the actual adjustment procedure by anticipating effects of certain corrector
changes on the deviations at all other headings.
Permanent Magnetism
a) Parameter P - fore and aft component
- ( + ) if it is the equivalent of a blue pole forward of the compass and
( – ) if red
b) Parameter Q - athwartship component

- ( + ) if it is the equivalent of a blue pole to starboard of the compass and
( – ) if red
c) Parameter R - vertical component

- ( + ) if it is the equivalent of a blue pole below the compass and
( – ) if red
Deviation
a) Semi-circular Deviation
- E throughout 180˚ of heading and W throughout the remainder
- sign remains unchanged throughout a semi-circle
000˚ 000˚
E W
270˚ 090˚ 270˚ 090˚ E W W E
W E
180˚ 180˚
b) Quadrantal Deviation
- changes sign in each quadrant, being E in two opposite quadrants
and W in the other two. 000˚
000˚
E W W E
270˚ 090˚ 270˚ 090˚
W E E W
180˚ 180˚
A - constant on all headings

- true constant if its cause is magnetic ( from an assymetrical combination of
parameters
- apparent constant if its cause is mechanical ( from an incorrectly placed
lubbers line) or mathematical (from an error in computation of magnetic
azimuth)
B - semi-circular deviation that is proportional to the sine of the C/H
- maximum on compass heading E or W and zero on C/H N or S Coefficients of Deviation
C - semi-circular deviation that is proportional to the cosine of the C/H
- maximum on compass heading N or S and zero on C/H E or W
B and C are caused by permanent magnetism
D - quadrantal deviation that is proportional to the sine of twice the C/H
- maximum on intercardinal headings and zero on cardinal headings
E - quadrantal deviation that is proportional to the cosine of twice the C/H
- maximum on cardinal headings and - zero on intercardinal headings
D and E are caused by induced magnetism
J - heeling error (change of deviation for a heel of 1˚ while the vessel heads 000˚)
1. Fore-and-aft magnets
– compensates for deviation caused by permanent
2. Athwartship magnets magnetism
3. Flinders bar – compensates for deviation caused by induced magnetism

in vertical soft iron
Magnetic Compass
4. Quadrantal spheres – compensates for deviation caused by induced Correctors
or magnetism in horizontal soft iron
soft iron spheres
5. Heeling magnet – compensates for deviation caused by both induced and

permanent magnetism
– compensates for deviation caused by the vessel’s inclination
from the vertical
What compass corrector can be set while the vessel is on a heading of magnetic
north or magnetic south?
What compass corrector cannot be set while the vessel is on a heading of magnetic
north or magnetic south?
N or S E or W NE, SE, SW or NW
Athwartship magnets Fore-and-aft magnets Quadrantal spheres

Heeling magnet Flinders bar
Cardinal headings – N (000˚), E (090˚), S (180˚), W (270˚)
000˚
090˚
Athwartship Magnets
Fore-and-Aft Magnets
180˚ 270˚
Compass Compensation
1. Raise or lower the magnets

Same colors repel
2. Remove or add magnets
Different colors attract
3. Reverse magnets
Note :
a. The fewer the magnets used, the better it is for the compass
b. The farther the magnets from the compass, the better it is for the compass
Compass Compensation
Inter-cardinal headings – NE (045˚), SE (135˚), SW (225˚), NW (315˚)
Westerly Deviation
1. Move the quadrantal spheres inward M = 315˚
C = 317˚
2. If all the way in, change to bigger spheres D = 2˚ W
Easterly Deviation
1. Move the quadrantal spheres outward
M = 315˚
2. If all the way out C = 313˚
a) change to smaller spheres or D = 2˚ E
b) remove one sphere
Topic No. 9
The Principles of Gyro-Compass
Operating principles of the

MECHANICAL / BALLISTIC GYROCOMPASS
 The operating principle of a mechanical/ ballistic gyrocompass is based on the moment of
inertia of a rapidly spinning wheel (GYROSCOPE)
ACTIVITY:
Explain how a gyroscope becomes a Gyrocompass.

MECHANICAL / BALLISTIC GYROCOMPASS
Explain how a gyroscope becomes a Gyrocompass.

FIBER OPTIC GYROCOMPASS
A fiber optic gyrocompass is a compass and instrument of navigation. It is often part of a ships
set of compasses, which also include a conventional gyrocompass and a magnetic compass.
The fiber optic gyrocompass is a complete unit, which unlike a conventional compass, has no
rotating or other moving parts. It uses a series of fiber optic gyroscope sensors and computers to
locate north.

FIBER OPTIC GYROCOMPASS
It has very high reliability and requires little maintenance during its service life.
 The entire system usually includes a
 sensor unit,
 a control and display unit,
 interface and power supply unit.
It is often linked with the ship's other navigational devices including GPS.

RING LASER GYROSCOPE
A ring laser gyroscope (RLG) consists of a ring
laser having two counter-propagating modes over the
same path in order to detect rotation.
It operates on the principle of the Sagnac effect which
shifts the nulls of the internal standing wave pattern in
response to angular rotation.
Interference between the counter-propagating beams,
observed externally, reflects shifts in that standing wave
pattern, and thus rotation.
ACTIVITY:
Compare the different types of Gyrocompass by listing down their advantages
and disadvantages.
Topic No. 10
Gyro-Compass Errors and Corrections
Gyro Error
Total of all combines errors of the gyrocompass. Expressed in E
or W, just like variation and deviation.
Unlike magnetic compass error, GE will be constant in one
direction.
Gyro Error
1. Speed Error
2. Latitude Error
3. Ballisic Deflection Error
4. Ballistic Damping Error
5. Quadrantal Errors
6. Gimballing Error
7. Additional Errors maybe introduced by
malfunction or incorrect alignment
Speed Error
Dependent upon:
• Vessel’s speed,
• Course and
• Latitude of the ship in which the compass is installed
Caused by the fact that a gyrocompass only moves E or W.

Any movement to the N or S will compass to trace a path which is actually a
function of the speed of advance and the amount of northerly or southerly
heading.
Speed Error
This causes the compass to settle a bit off True North.
This error is Westerly if the vessel’s course is to northerly.
Easterly if the vessel’s course is southerly.
This error is corrected internally by means of a cosine cam mounted on the

underside of the azimuth gear.
Tangent Latitude Error

Only found on gyros with mercury ballistics.
Easterly in North latitudes and Westerly in South latitudes.
Corrected internally by offsetting the lubber’s line or with a small movable weight
attached to the casing.
Ballistic Deflection Error

Occurs when there is a marked change in the N-S component of the speed. E-W
accelerations have no effect.
A change of course or speed also result in speed error in the opposite direction this
cancelling each other if the compass is well designed.
This involves slightly offsetting the ballistics according to the operating latitude .
Ballistic Damping Error

Is a temporary oscillation introduced by changes in course or speed.
The mercury in the ballistics is subjected to centrifugal and

acceleration/deceleration forces.
Slow changes do not introduce enough error but rapid changes will.
This is counteracted by changing the position of the ballistics so that the true
vertical axis is centered, thus not subject to error.
Quadrantal Error
Causes:
• Occurs if the center of gravity of the gyro is not exactly centered in the phantom,
minimized by adding weight so that the mass is the same in all directions from
the center
• The 2nd source is when a vessel rolls in the sea, the apparent vertical axis is
displaced, first to one side then the other. This error is corrected by used of a 2nd
gyroscope called a floating ballistics which stabilizes the mercury ballistics as the
vessel rolls.
Gimballing Error
Caused by taking readings from the compass card when it is tilted from the
horizontal plane.
It applies to compass and to all repeaters.
To minimize this error, the outer ring of the gimbal should be installed in alignment
with the fore-and-aft line of the vessel.
Topic No. 11
Systems under the control of the master gyro
and the operation and care of the main types
of gyro-compasses in use at Sea
Main Systems under the control of the Master Gyro
The gyrocompass system transmits information to:

RADAR,
ECDIS,
AIS,
GPS
VDR,
GMDSS equipment,
Steering Console
Other equipment or systems as required
Main types of Gyro-compasses in use at Sea

1. Mechanical / Ballistic Gyro Compass
2. Fiber Optic Gyro Compass
3. Ring Laser Gyro Compass
4. HRG gyrocompass (Hemispherical Resonant gyroscope)
Main types of Gyro-compasses in use at Sea

RESEARCH:
Print out a sample of a Gyrocompass User Manual and list down the maintenance
procedures.
End of Presentation

NAV 1 Capt

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NAVIGATION I

Compasses – Magnetic and Gyro

Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers in

The cadets must

Magnetic and Gyro Compass – Topics

Magnetic and Gyro Compass – Topics

The Magnetism of the Earth

The Magnetism of the Earth

The Magnetism of the Earth

The Magnetism of the Earth

The Magnetism of the Earth

The Magnetism of the Ship

The Magnetism of the Ship

The Magnetism of the Ship

The Magnetism of the Ship

The Magnetism of the Ship

The Magnetism of the Ship

More on the Earth’s Magnetism

More on the Earth’s Magnetism

The Magnetic Compass

How does a magnetic compass work?

How does a magnetic compass work?

Types of Magnetic Compass

(a) The dry card Compass

(b) The wet card Compass

The dry card Compass

Wet Card Compass (Marine Compass)

Wet Card Compass (Marine Compass)

Wet Card Compass (Marine Compass)

Wet Card Compass (Marine Compass)

Don't forget that any magnetic compass will

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

Magnetic Compass Nomenclature

LIMITATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

PRECAUTIONS, CARE AND MAINTENANCE

PRECAUTIONS, CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Compute the magnetic course and true course

Pelorus – a device for measuring in

Drifting - The motion

Using the Gyrocompass

Using the Gyrocompass

Use of Radar with Gyrocompass

Use of Radar with Gyrocompass

2.5.1 A gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their

Use of Radar with Gyrocompass

2. List the settings to be made or adjusted while the compass is in use

4. Describe the alarms fitted to a gyro-compass

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Correcting and Uncorrecting the compass

Compass Course and Bearing Corrections