• The world’s 20,000–25,000 polar bears are

found in 19 populations distributed across the

frozen Arctic.
• About 60% of them are in Canada, and the rest
are found in arctic areas in Denmark,
Norway, Russia, and the U.S. state of Alaska.

• Throughout the winter, the bears hunt for seals

on floating sea ice that expands southward
each winter and contracts as the temperature
rises each summer.
• Normally the bears swim from one patch of sea
ice to another to hunt and eat seals
during winter as their body fat accumulates.

• In the summer and fall, the animals fast and live

off their body fat for several months
until hunting resumes when the ice expands
again each winter.
• The shrinkage of sea ice means that polar
bears have less time to feed and store the fat
they need to survive their summer
and fall months of fasting.
• the world’s total polar bear population is likely to
decline by 30–35% by 2050, and by the
end of this century, the bears might be found
only in zoos.

Biodiversity : Is it possible to implement

protective policies in the world today?
• Yes, Biodiversity and Endangered Species
Can Be Protected
• Policies to promote biodiversity and protect
endangered species can be implemented
today. But government is probably the worse
tool to do it.
• People that own private property are more likely
to protect the environment.
• Though there are cases of mining companies
poisoning the waters, for example by using
acids to mine gold, but if the surrounding land
owners were able to go after offending mining
companies more affectively (therefore
• protecting their own property), them the
environment would be better served. And that is
why organizations like the Elk Foundation are
buying land to preserve it for hunting, but as a
side effect protecting all species in their land.
• Third world countries that can't afford to
implement policy will still be the ones polluting
the world and killing animals that should not be
killed. The fact of the matter is, we are just one
small nation, and sure a few other nations will
join in with us.
 BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living
organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur.

Types of Biodiversity

• Genetic Biodiversity
• Ecosystem Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity

Genetic Biodiversity

The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations

each of which gives rise to some variability.
When the genes within the same species show different versions due to new
combinations, it is called genetic variability.

Eg : Oryza sativa
• Species Biodiversity

 This is the variability found within the population

of a species or between different species of a
community.
 Variety or abundance of a species in a certain
place.
 It represents broadly the species richness and
their abundance in a community.
 There are two popular indices of measuring
species biodiversity : Shannon-Wiener index
and Simpson index.
• Ecosystem diversity

This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing

variations in ecological niches, trophic structure, food-
webs, nutrient cycling.

The ecosystems show variations with respect to

physical parameters like moisture, temperature,
altitude, precipitation.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF INDIA
• India has different types of climate and topography in different
parts of the country and these variations have induced
enormous variability in flora and fauna.

• It occupies tenth position among the plant rich nations of the

world.

• Biogeography deals with the study of distribution, evolution,

dispersal and environmental relationship of plants and animals
in time and space.

• In our country, it has been classified into ten biogeographic

zones. Each of these zones has its own characteristic climate,
soil, topography and biodiversity.
• Value of Biodiversity

Consumptive use value : fuel, food, drugs, fibre

Food : About 80,000 edible plant species have been reported from wild.
About 90% of present day food crops have been domesticated from
wild tropical plants.

Drugs and medicines : About 75% of the world’s population depends

upon plants or plant extracts for medicines.

Penicillin - fungus called penicillium.

Tetracycline - from a bacterium
Quinine - cure for malaria is obtained from bark of Cinchona tree
Digitalin - obtained from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an effective cure
for heart ailments.
Vinblastin and Vincristine - anticancer drugs obtained from
Catharanthus plant possessing anticancer alkaloids.

Fuel : wood, coal, oil and natural gas.

• Productive use values

Animal products like tusks of elephants, musk

from musk deer, silk from silk-worm, wool from
sheep, fur of many animals, lac from lac insects.

E.g. : Paper and pulp industry, plywood industry,

Railway Sleeper industry, Silk industry,
Textile industry, Ivory-works, Leather industry,
Pearl industry.
• Social value
These are the values associated with the social
life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual
aspects of people.

Eg : Tulsi, Mango, Peepal, Lotus, Bael are

considered sacred in our country.
Leaves, fruits and flowers are used in worship.

• Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl

etc., have a significant place in our psycho-
spiritual arena and hold special social importance.
• Ethical value
“all life must be preserved”.
Live and let live
If we want our human race to survive, we must protect all
biodiversity because biodiversity is valuable.
Nothing derived from Kangaroo, zebra or giraffee.

• Aesthetic value

People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit
wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of
biodiversity. This type of tourism is known as Eco-tourism.

Willingness to pay concept on such eco-tourism gives us even

a monetary estimate for aesthetic value of biodiversity.
• Option values
Values include potentials of biodiversity that are presently
unknown and need to be explored.
We may have some potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing
within depths of marine ecosystem or tropical rain forest.

• Ecosystem service value

It refers to the service provided by ecosystems like prevention

of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility,
cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water,
pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global
warming.
 Usefulness of Monkey
• Used in biomedical research and testing.
• Understand and cure Parkinson’s disease.
• In Space : number of countries have used
monkeys as part of their space exploration
programmes, including the United States and
France.
• The first monkey in space was Albert II, who
flew in the US-launched V-2 rocket on June
14, 1949.
 GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY
• Terrestrial biodiversity of earth is called as biomes.

• Biomes : the largest ecological units present in

different geographic areas and are named after the
dominant vegetation eg. Tropical rain forests, tall
grass prairies, savannas, desert, tundra.

• Tropical rain forests : largest storehouse of

biodiversity (plants, birds,amphibians,insects as well
as mammals). About 50 to 80% of global biodiversity
lies in these rainforests.
• More than one-fourth of the world’s prescription
drugs are extracted from plants growing in
tropical forests.

• Cancer fighting chemicals obtained from plants

have 70% coming from tropical rain forests.

• Extract from one of the creeping vines in

rainforests at Cameroon has proved effective in
inhibition of replication of AIDS virus.

• Neem tree : medicinal properties

Silent Valley of Kerala : only place in India
where tropical rain forests occur.

• Temperate forests : less biodiversity.

Roughly 1,70,000 flowering plants, 30,000
vertebrates, and about 2,50,000 other groups
of species have been described.

Marine Diversity of Earth – richer and dazzling

• Estuaries, Coastal waters and Oceans

• Out of 35 existing multicellular animal phyla –
34 are marine, of which 16 are excl. marine
EASTERN HIMALAYAS
WESTERN GHATS
 HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
• Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high
species endemism (restricted to only a particular region) are
termed as hot spots of biodiversity.

• Hotspots cover less than 2% of the world’s land area are found
to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity.

• According to Myer’s et al (2000) an area is designated as a

hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of the plant species as
endemics.

• About 40% of the terrestrial plants and 20% of vertebrate

species are endemic and found in these hotspots.
• After the tropical rain forests, the second highest number of
endemic plant species are found in the Mediterranean. Broadly,
these hot spots are in Western Amazon, Madagascar, North
and East Borneo, North Eastern Australia, W. Africa and
Brazilian Atlantic forests.

• These areas : high diversity, endemism and also threatened by

human activities.

• Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth, endemic
species of plants but also reptiles, amphibians and some
mammals.
 Eastern Himalayas

• Ultra-varied topography that fosters species

diversity and endemism.
• Numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in
Sikkim which are extremely rich in endemic
plant species.
• Forest cover of Eastern Himalayas decreased
to about 1/3rd of its original cover.
• Certain species like Sapria himalayana was
seen only twice in last 70 years.
• North east India : cradle of flowering plants.

• Out of the world’s recorded flora 30% are

endemic to India of which 35,000 are in
Himalayas.

Western Ghats

• 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala : has 40%
of total endemic plant species, 62% amphibians
 and 50% lizards are endemic to Western
Ghats.

• Major centers are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent

Valley : the New Amambalam Reserve Basin.

• Only 6.8% of original forests are existing today.

• Common plants include Ternstroemia japonixa,

Rhododendron and Hypericum while common
fauns includes laughing thrush, lizard hawk,
Fairy blue bird.
 Biological Diversity at National Level

• India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries

of the world, 11th in terms of endemic species of
higher vertebrates.

• India : 6th among the centers of diversity and

origin of agricultural crops.

• India : one of the mega-biodiversity countries in

world. Out of 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the
world, 2 Hotspots are in India.
• Regional or Local biodiversity

a) Point richness : number of species that can be

found at a single point in a given space.

b) Alpha richness : number of species found in a small

homogeneous area

c) Beta richness : rate of change in species

composition across different habitats.

d) Gamma richness : rate of change across large

landscape gradients.
• Alpha-richness is strongly correlated with
physical environment variables.

• Eg : 100 species of tunicates in arctic waters,

400 species in temperate waters.

• Beta-richness : cumulative number of species

increases as more heterogeneous habitats are
taken into consideration.
 INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
• India contains about 8% of world’s biodiversity on 2% of
the earth’s surface.
• India records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species
of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% of global flora and
fauna.
• 33% of life forms are found in India and is one among the
12 mega diversity countries.
• 33 Botanical Gardens, 89 National Parks, 275 Zoos, 504
sanctuaries and 12 biosphere reserves in India.

• Endemism : Species which are restricted only to a

particular area. 62% Amphibians and 50% lizards.
• Western ghats are site of maximum endemism.
 Center of origin :
• 5000 species of flowering plants had their origin in
India.
• Center of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320
species of wild relatives of cultivated crops.

Marine diversity :

• Along 7500Km long coastline of our country in the

mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc
there exists a rich biodiversity.
• 340 species of corals of world are found here.
• Rich in mollusks, crustaceans, polychaetes and
corals.

• Several species of Mangrove plants and sea grasses

are found in our country.

• Indian forests cover 64.1 million hectares having a rich

biodiversity of plants in Trans-Himalayan, north-west,
west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western
ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, Andaman and
Nicobar, Lakshadweep islands.
 Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural
process of evolution
• The process of extinction has become faster due
to human civilization
• The figure of extinction is at a rate of10,000
species per year or 27 per days
• One third to two-third of our current biodiversity
will be lost by the year 2050
• The current annual rate of species extinction is
at least 100 to 1,000 times the background rate
of about 0.0001%.

Estimating Extinction Rates

• We have identified only about 2 million of the
world’s estimated 8 million to 100 million
species.
• One approach to estimating future extinction
rates is to study records documenting the rates
at which mammals and birds (the easiest to
observe) have become extinct since
humans arrived.
• to focus our efforts on slowing the much higher
rates of extinction in such biodiversity hotspots.
• Biodiversity expert Edward O. Wilson puts it,
“The first animal species to go are the big, the
slow, the tasty, and those with valuable parts
such as tusks and skins.”
• The passenger pigeon and the Carolina
parakeet, both extinct, nested in large flocks
that made them easy to kill.
• These birds were good to eat, their feathers
made good pillows, and their bones were
widely used for fertilizer.
 Major causes – Biodiversity Threat

• Loss of Habitat or Habitat Degradation

• Poaching
• Invasion of Non-native Species
• Pollution
• Over-exploitation of Resources
• Global Environmental Change
 Loss of Habitat
• Destruction and loss of Habitat
• Billions of hectares are cleared over past
10,000 years for conversion into agriculture
lands, pastures, settlement areas or
development projects.
• Severe damage to wetlands due to draining,
filling and pollution thereby causing huge
biodiversity loss.
• it can divide populations of a species into
smaller and more isolated groups that are more
vulnerable to predators, competitor species,
disease, and catastrophic events such as
storms and fires.

• Migrating species also face dangers from

fences, farms, paved areas, skyscrapers, and
cell phone towers.
• Populations of 40% of the world’s water birds
are in decline because
of the global loss of wetlands.

• Huge numbers of migrating birds are killed each

year when they collide with electrical
transmission and communications towers and
skyscrapers that have been erected in the
middle of their migration routes.
• Deforestation in tropical areas is the greatest
eliminator of species, followed by the
destruction and degradation of coral reefs
destruction of wetlands, plowing of grasslands,
and pollutionof streams, lakes, and oceans.
 Poaching
• Illegal trade of wild life
• Furs,horns,tusks,hides,live specimens and
herbal products.
• Rich in biodiversity : Asia, Latin America, Africa
• Major importers of wildlife products : Europe
and north america
• Cost of elephant tusk : $100/kg
• Leopard fur coat : $100,000
• Hyacinth macaw : $10,000
 Man-Wildlife Conflicts
• Wildlife causing damage and danger to humans
and properties – crops/houses
• In Sambalpur (Orissa) 195 humans were killed in
the last 5 years by elephants.
• Humans responded by killing 98 elephants and
injuring 30 elephants.
• In Nepal, 17 peoples were killed in the Royal
Chitwan National Park by a man-eating tiger.
• Electrical fencing, explosives were some of the
methods adopted by villages to kill wild animals.
 Causes of conflicts
• Human encroachment into forest areas
• Animals suffering from illness, weak and injured
take humans
• Lack of alternate cultivation practices (paddy,
sugarcane) by forest department for animals like
elephants when bamboo leaves are not
available.
• Electric fencing causes injury to animals, which
in return turn violent
• Poor cash compensation by govt. to farmers for
crop damages, turn farmer to take revenge on
wild animals
• Elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder and
150kg of clean water daily.
• Elephants can hear one another's trumpeting
calls up to 5 miles (8 kilometers) away.
• An elephant can smell water from 12 miles
away.
Remedial measures Curb Conflict

• Adequate crop compensation and cattle

compensation scheme.
• Solar powered fencing should be provided
along with electric current proof trenches to
prevent animals from straying into fields.
• Wildlife corridors should be provide for mass
migration of big animals during unfavourable
periods. About 300km2 area is required for
elephant corridors for their seasonal migration.
• Cropping pattern should be changed near the
forest borders and adequate fodder, fruit and
water should be made available for the
elephants within forest zones.
• In Orissa, they have a ritual “Akand Shikar”. SO
decline in prey of tigers.
 ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
• Extinct species : When it is not seen in the wild for 50
years at a stretch. Eg., Dodo, passenger pigeon.

• Endangered species : When its number has been

reduced to a critical level or whose habitats are
drastically reduced and if such a species is not
protected and conserved, its in immediate danger of
extinction.

• Vulnerable species : If a population of a species is

facing continuous decline due to overexploitation or
habitual destruction.eg:european bison, wandering
albatross, antelope-common eland.
VULNERABLE SPECIES
• Rare species : Species which are not endangered or
vulnerable at present but at a risk.Eg : Giant Panda,
wild bactrian camel,Cheetah.

• International Union for Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes Red Data Book
(list of endangered species of plants and animals).

• Nearly 450 plant species have been identified as

categories of endangered, threatened or rare.
 Few species of endangered reptiles,
birds, mammals and plants

Reptiles : Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise, python

Birds : Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican,
Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian White Crane
Carnivorous: Indian wolf, red fox, sloth bear, red panda
Mammals : Golden cat, Desert cat
Primates : Golden monkey, Capped monkey
Plants : Orchids, Rhododendrons, Sandal wood tree
 Endemic Species of India
• Species which are restricted only to a particular area
are known as endemic.
• Out of 47,000 species of plants in our country 7,000 are
endemic.
• Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora,
restricted namely to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and
Western Ghats.
• Endemic Flora : Sapria Himalayana, Pitcher plants and
Orchids
• Out of 81,000 animal species – large number of
species are described to be endemic
• Western Ghats: 62% amphibians, 50% Lizards are
endemic
• Endemic species : reticulated python, Indian
Salamander and Viviparous toad.
 Species Interaction
• Inter/Intraspecific competition - access to the
same limited resources such as food, water, light and
space.

• Predation - one species feeds directly on all or part

of a member of another species

• Parasitism – parasites feed on the another organism

(the host), usually by living on or in the host.

• Mutualism - benefits both species by providing each

with food, shelter, or some other resource.

• Commensalism – benefits one species but has little,

if any, effect on the other.
• Key stone species is Sea Otters.
• Key stone species are species whose role
have a larger effect on types and abundance of
other species in an ecosystem.

• Sea Urchins destroy Kelp forest by eating

them.From Kelp, algin is obtained which is used
in toothpaste, icecreams. Kelp protects shore
erosion.
Example of Predator, prey.
• Ecosystem is benefitted by Sea otters feeding
on sea urchins.
• Resource Partitioning among species : Feeding
on different insects and different portions of
certain spruce trees.
• Chemical Warfare : Prey species discourage
predators with chemicals that are poisonous
(oleander plants), irritating (stinging nettles),
foul tasting (monarch butterflies).
• What about OCTOPUS?
When attached, some species of octopus and
squid emit clouds of black ink, allowing them to
escape.
• Two different species (prey and predator)
change with time, such changes can help both
sides to become more competitive or to avoid
or reduce competition : “Coevolution”
• Certain moth species (ears) that are especially
sensitive to sound frequencies that bats use to
find them. Some moths use high-frequency
clicks to jam echolocation systems.
• Parasitism : Disease causing organisms
(pathogens) and tapeworms live inside their
hosts.
• Outside of their hosts : Sea lampreys attach
themselves to fish and feed on their blood.
• Fleas : move from one host to another
• Mutualism : Birds on large animals like Buffalo,
elephants, rhino
• Birds remove and eat parasites and pests from
animal’s body and warns larger animals when
predators approach.
• Second example : Clown fish live with a group
of sea anemones whose tentacles sting and
paralyze most fish that touch them.
• Clown fish which are not harmed by tentacles
sting gain protection from predators.
• Sea anemoes benefit because clownfish protect
them from some of their predators and
parasites.
• Hundreds of bacteria secrete enzymes that help
you digest food. Similarly cows.Bacteria
receives food from host.
 COMMENSALISM
• Certain types of orchids, bromeliads
(epiphytes) attach themselves to trunks or
branches of large trees in tropical forests.
• These air plants benefit by having a solid
base to grow. Trees are not harmed and
gain no benefit.
• How does species richness affect an
ecosystem?
First Hypothesis : More diverse an ecosystem,
more productive.Greater variety of producer, an
ecosystem will produce more biomass which in
turn will support a greater variety of consumer
species.
• Second Hypothesis : A complex ecosystem
with many different species and resulting
variety of feeding paths has more ways to
respond to most environmental stresses.
 Indicator species
• Species provide early warnings of a damage to
a community or ecosystem called as indicator
species.
• Presence or absence of trout species is an
indicator of water quality because trout need
clean water with high levels of dissolved
oxygen.
• Coal mining and canaries : Coal mining is a
dangerous occupation because of presence of
poisonous and explosive gases, many of which
have no detectable odour.
• Coal miners took caged canaries : they sing
loudly normally. They don’t sing when they are
troubled, miners took this as an indicator of
presence of poisonous or explosive gases out
of mine.
 Conservation of Biodiversity

• In situ conservation (within habitat ) : achieved

by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature
itself. Eg. Biosphere reserves, National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Reserve forests etc.

• Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats) : done

by establishment of gene banks, seed banks,
zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections.
In Situ Conservation

7 major biosphere reserves, 80 national parks, 420

wild-life sanctuaries, 120 Botanical gardens in our
country covering 4% of geographic area.

Biosphere serves : conserve some representative

ecosystems as a whole for long-term in situ
conservation.
In India, we have Nanda Devi(U.P.),Nokrek
(Meghalaya), Manas (Assam), Sunderbans (West
Bengal), Gulf of Mannar (T.N.),Nilgiri (Karnataka,
Kerala,T.N.),Great Nicobars, Similipal (Orissa)
biosphere reserves.
• Within the biosphere reserves, 1 or more
National parks. For ex: Nilgiri Biosphere reserve
has 2 National parks viz. Bandipur, Nagarhole
National park.

• National Park : area dedicated for the

conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. Its meant for enjoyment through
tourism.

• Grazing of domestic animals, all private rights,

forestry activities are prohibited within a
National Park.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: Protected areas where killing,
hunting, shooting or capturing of wildlife are prohibited
except under the control of highest authority.

• Plants : gene sanctuary for Citrus, one for pitcher plant

in North east India.

• Specific projects to conserve animals : Project Tiger,

Gir Lion Project, Crocodile Breeding Project, Project
Elephant, Snow Leopard Project.
 Ex-situ Conservation
• Conservation of crop varieties, wild relatives of crops
and all local varieties (conserve total genetic variability
of crop species for future crop improvement).

• Important Gene bank/Seed bank facilities :

• National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
: located in New Delhi.

• Agricultural, horticultural crops, their wild relatives are

preserved by cryo-preservation of seeds, pollen etc by
using liquid nitrogen at a temp as low as -196 0c.
• Varieties of rice, pearl millet, Brassica, turnip,radish,
tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco,poppy etc :
preserved in liquid nitrogen for several years without
losing seed viability.

• National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources

(NBAGR) : located at Karnal, Haryana. Preserves
semen of domesticated bovine animals.

• National Facility for plant tissue culture repository

(NFPTCR) : development of facility of conservation of
varieties of crop plants/trees by tissue culture.
 Aquatic Biodiversity
• 3 patterns : they are found more on bottom
region of the ocean as they are greater variety
of food sources and habitat.
• More biodiversity near the coast than the open
sea bcoz of the larger variety of producers and
habitats.
• It occurs in deep-ocean floor, estuaries and
coral reefs.
• Habitat disruption is also a problem in
freshwater aquatic zones.
• The main causes of disruption are dam
building and excessive water withdrawal from
rivers for irrigation and urban water supplies.
• These activities destroy aquatic habitats,
degrade water flows, and disrupt
freshwater biodiversity.
 Aquatic Biodiversity

Major aquatic life zones:

i. saltwater or marine life zones:
oceans and their bays, estuaries, coastal wetlands, shorelines, coral reefs,
and mangrove forests
ii. freshwater life zones:
lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands
Although some systems such as estuaries are a mix of saltwater and freshwater,
it is classified as marine systems.

Aquatic species & trophic levels:

i. plankton:
divided into three groups
a. phytoplankton:
It includes many types of algae and various rooted plants near
shorelines. Thwy are the primary producers that support most aquatic food webs.
 Aquatic Biodiversity
b. zooplankton:
It consists of primary consumers (herbivores), which feed on phytoplankton,
and secondary consumers, which feed on other zooplankton.
The members of this group range from singlecelled protozoa to large
invertebrates such as jellyfish.

c. ultraplankton:
These tiny photo-synthetic bacteria may be responsible for 70% of the
primary productivity near the ocean surface.
ii. nekton:
Strongly swimming consumers such as fish, turtles, and whales.
iii. benthos:
It consists of bottom-dwellers such as: oysters and sea stars, which anchor
themselves to ocean bottom structures; clams and worms, which burrow into
the sand or mud; and lobsters and crabs, which walk about on the sea floor.
iv. decomposers:
They are mostly bacteria which break down organic compounds in the dead
bodies and wastes of aquatic organisms into nutrients that aquatic primary
producers can use.
This hawaiian monk seal was slowly starving to death before a discarded piece of
Plastic was removed from its snout.
These zebra mussels are attached to a
water current meter in Lake Michigan.
This invader entered the Great Lakes
through ballast water dumped from a
European ship. It has become
a major nuisance and a threat to
commerce as well as to biodiversity
in the Great Lakes.
• Other ways to protect endangered and
threatened aquatic species involve using
economic incentives.
• For example, according to a 2004 World
Wildlife Fund study, sea turtles are worth more
to local communities alive than dead.
• The report estimates that sea turtle tourism
brings in almost three times more money than
the sale of turtle products such as meat,
leather, and eggs brings in.
Genetically modified
organisms
• A genetically modified organism is an organism
whose genetic material has been altered using
genetic engineering techniques.

• Organisms that have been genetically modified

include micro-organisms such as bacteria,
yeast, insects, plants, fish and mammals.
• Genetic modification involves mutation,
insertion, or deletion of genes.
• When genes are inserted, they usually come
from a different species, which is a form of
horizontal gene transfer.
• Horizontal gene transfer refers to transfer of
genes between organisms in a manner other
than traditional reproduction.
• To do this artificially may require attaching
genes to a virus or just physically inserting extra
DNA into nucleus of intended host with a very
small syringe.
• GMOs are the source of genetically modifed
foods.
• GMOs are used in biological, medical research,
production of pharmaceutical drugs, agriculture.
• Genetically modified crops are plants used in
agriculture, the DNA of which has been
modified using genetic engineering techniques.
 Why GMOs?
• Because there is some perceived advantage
either to the producer or consumer of these
GMOs.
• Product with a lower price, greater benefit (in
terms of durability or nutritional value)
• Initially GM seed developers wanted their
products to be accepted by producers so have
concentrated on innovations that farmers (and
the food industry more generally) would
appreciate.
• To improve crop protection through the
introduction of resistance against plant diseases
caused by insects or viruses or through
increased tolerance towards herbicides.
• Insect resistance is achieved by incorporating
into the food plant the gene for toxin production
from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT)
• Virus resistance is achieved through the
introduction of a gene from certain viruses
which cause disease in plants.
• Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the
introduction of a gene from a bacterium
conveying resistance to some herbicides.
 Examples of GMO’s

• In 1994, the Flavr Savr tomato was introduced as the

first GM food. It is supposed to be“tastier, firmer and
fresher” than the average tomato.
• Golden rice – enriched rice containing beta-carotene
(Vitamin A). This vitamin is not found in normal rice.
• Bt corn – corn containing a chemical normally found
in bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis). This is toxic to
insects, not humans. Insects try to eat the plant and
die.
• Herbicide resistant plants (roundup ready corn).
These plants are immune to a certain herbicide, so
they live while all the other plants in the field are
killed.

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

 GMO foods…are common

According to Greenpeace, up to 70% of processed

foods in Canada contain GM ingredients. Most
common are corn, soy, canola and cotton.
Image credit:http://www.usda.gov: US Dept of Agriculture
 What is grown globally?

• In 2001 the area of genetically modified crops grown

globally was 52.6 million hectares. That is an area the
size of France or Spain. This includes food and non-food
crops (I.e.cotton)
– 4 countries produced 99% of the world's genetically modified
crops. These are:
• USA (68%)
• Argentina (22%)
• Canada (6%)
• China (3%)
• More than 80% of canola grown in Canada and a high
proportion of the country’s soybean and corn crops are
genetically modified.
Image credit: Microsoft clipart
From ( U.S. Dept. Agriculture 2001)
 GM foods in Canada
Health Canada groups GM foods into a category called “Novel
Foods”.
•Foods resulting from a process not previously used for food;
•Products that have never been used as a food; or
•Foods that have been modified by genetic manipulation, also known
as genetically modified (GM) foods, genetically engineered foods or
biotechnology-derived foods
These crops are
70 novel Potatoes processed into the
foods have Canola goods in grocery
Corn stores….
been Tomatoes
approved Squash
Soybeans
for sale Flax
Sugarbeets
in Canada. Are all
examples!!
Image credit: Microsoft clipart
 Gene Splicing : Technique
• Gene splicing is a form of genetic
engineering where specific genes or gene
sequences are inserted into
the genome of a different organism.
• Gene splicing can also specifically refer to
a step during the processing
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to
prepare it to be translated into protein.
 Benefits #1
• Increased crop productivity
– This includes herbicide tolerance,
– pest and disease resistance
– E.g. “Roundup ready” crops, and BT
corn.
– Could mean using less spray

Image credit: http://www.public-domain-photos.com/ & Microsoft clipart

 Benefits #2
• Cold tolerance
– plants developed to tolerate cold
temperatures
– & withstand unexpected frost
• could destroy seedlings
• Drought & salinity tolerance
– currently inhospitable regions
can now be cultivated

Image credit: http://www.public-domain-photos.com/

 Benefits #3

• Improved nutrition
– crops like rice are a staple in
developing countries
• nutritionally inadequate!
– GM "golden rice" is high in beta-
carotene (vitamin A)
• Reduces eye-related problems
like blindness due to malnutrition

Image credit: http://www.public-domain-photos.com/ & Microsoft clipart

 Benefits #4

• Phytoremediation
(fī'tō-rĭ-mē'dē-ā'shən)
–plants like poplar
trees clean up the
heavy metal soil
contamination
–GM plants with higher
tolerance for heavy
metals like mercury.
Image credit: Microsoft clipart
 Benefits #5

• Future benefits might include:

– food without allergens; (I.e. anyone could eat nuts)
– grains, fruit & vegetables with improved nutrition
(multi-vitamin potatoes=healthy fast food french fries!)
– longer shelf life and better taste (reduced food waste
due to spoilage)
– rice enhanced with iron (prevent anemia)
– foods used as vaccines (bye-bye needles)
– Many more possibilities

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

 Challenges #1
• Environmental – possibility of unintended
harm to other organisms:
– potential risk of harm to non-target organisms, e.g.
a pest resistant crop that produces toxins that may
harm both crop-damaging and non crop-damaging
insects
• E.g. The pollen of BT corn on milkweed is
thought to affect (slow or kill) the larvae of
Monarch butterflies. Further studies are
underway.

Image credit: http://www.public-domain-photos.com/ & Microsoft clipart

 Challenges #2
• pesticides become less effective as pests
become resistant to modified crops.
– Different varieties and strengths of pesticides will be
needed once weeds have adapted to the existing
effective pesticides.

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

 Challenges #3
• “Superweeds”
– gene transfer to non-target species where
herbicide tolerant plants crossbreed with
weeds potentially creating herbicide
resistant weeds.
• Some Western Canadian farmers are
calling Monsanto’s round-up ready
canola a superweed.

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

 Challenges #4
• Human health risks
– introducing a gene into
a plant may create a
new allergen or cause
an allergic reaction in
susceptible individuals
– For example, inserting
genes from a nut into
another plant could be
dangerous for people
who are allergic to nuts
Image credit: Microsoft clipart
 Challenges #5

• Economic Hazards
• Elimination of competition
– GM seeds are patented (must buy each year)
• This presents problems for poor farmers in both the developed
and developing worlds.
– Large companies like Monsanto have resorted to suing
small farmers found to be using their seed without
paying.
• Suicide seeds
– Plants with sterile seeds that are infertile are created
– Farmers are forced to buy seeds every year
• However, some companies have reduced costs or
donated GM seeds to impoverished nations.
Image credit: Microsoft clipart
Impacts of Genetic Modification
• 1.4 billion farmers in developed countries
depend on “saved seeds” and seed
exchanges (50% of crops)
• 1998 Monsanto sued 100 US soybean
growers and hired “Pinkerton” agents to track
down “seed savers
• “Pineland Seed Company” was granted
patent in 1998 for “terminator technology”
– seeds do not germinate if planted for second time

Image credit: Microsoft clipart