METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA

• After the data have been collected and

checked for possible errors, the next logical
step is to present the data in a manner that is
easy to understand.
• It should also readily convey the relevant
information and the important results at a
glance.
• There are two general methods of presenting
data, namely:
– tabular presentation
– graphical presentation.
 Tabular Presentation
• The tabular display is a more reliable and
effective way of showing relationships or
comparisons data through the use of tables.
• In many cases, the tables are accompanied by
a short narrative explanation to make the facts
clearer and more understandable.
 Cross Tabulation Table
• When data are in categories, results are
usually presented in a cross tabulation table
which arranges data in rows and columns.
• Some information collected has only a small
number of possible values, like the sex of a
respondent or a “Yes” or “No” answer.
 Cross Tabulation Table
• These categories are assigned in a row or a
column and the appropriate information,
oftentimes in frequencies or percentages, are
placed in suitable cells.
Cross Tabulation Table
Cross Tabulation Table
 Cross Tabulation Table
• Typically, a table contains the heading, which
includes a table number and a title, the body,
which is the main part of the table and an
optional footnote, which indicates the source
of the data.
• A table number is necessary to easily identify
the table.
• It should be followed by a title, which briefly
describes the contents of the table.
 Cross Tabulation Table
• The body of the table contains the row
categories, which are found at the left side of
the table and the column categories, which
are placed at the top of the table.
• In addition, row totals located at the right side
of the table and column totals at the bottom
of the table may be provided.
 Cross Tabulation Table
• The figures found in the cells of the main body
are usually the frequencies, representing the
number of times the two categories occur
together.
• Some people prefer to use percentages may
be reported together in the same cell.
 Cross Tabulation Table
• The data used may have been lifted from
some publications or provided by another
group or person.
• One or more footnotes may be added just
below the main body of the table to indicate
the source of the information
 Frequency Distribution Table
• B. Frequency Distribution Table
• In many instances, information gathered is
numerical in nature, like the age of a
respondent, the income of a household, or the
exam score of a student.
• Data presented in its original form and
structure is called raw data.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Data presented in such form is difficult to read
and analyze.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• When these scores are arranged either in
ascending or descending magnitude, then
such an arrangement is called an array.
• It is usually helpful to put the raw data in an
array because it is easy to identify the extreme
values and the values where the scores most
cluster.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Generally, data presented either as raw or
array is called ungrouped data.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• When faced with a large data set, it is often
advantageous to organize and present the
data as grouped data so as to get a better
overall picture.
• The procedure of organizing and presenting
the data into groups is called a frequency
distribution table.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Components of a Frequency Distribution
Table (FDT)
1. Class – refers to a group of values. It is also
known as class interval.
2. Class limits – are the end numbers defining a
class, namely: the lower limit (LL) and the upper
limit (UL).
 Frequency Distribution Table
3. Frequency (f) – is the number of observations
falling in each class.
4. Class boundaries – are the so called “true
class limits” classified as:
a. Lower class boundary (LCB) – is the middle
value between the lower limit of the class
and the upper limit of the preceding class.
It is also computed by subtracting 0.5 unit
from the lower limit.
 Frequency Distribution Table
b. Upper class boundary (UCB) – is the middle
value between the upper limit of the class and
the lower limit of the next class.
It is also computed by adding 0.5 unit from
the upper limit.
 Frequency Distribution Table
5. Class size (c) – is the difference between two
consecutive lower limits or upper limits.
6. Classmark (x) – is the midpoint or the middle
value of a class.
7. Cumulative frequency – shows the
accumulated frequencies of successive classes.
 Frequency Distribution Table
a. Less than CF (LCF) – is the number of
observations less than or equal to the upper
limit of the class.
b. Greater than CF (GCF) – is the number of
observations greater than or equal to the lower
limit of the class.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Construction of a Frequency Distribution
Table (FDT)
• In coming up with a frequency distribution,
one may just decide on a set of classes that
reads naturally, such as that based on the
numbers 5, 10, 15 20, 25.
• However, to construct a frequency distribution
systematically the following steps are
suggested.
 Frequency Distribution Table
1. Determine the range (R) of the data set.
R = highest value (HV) - lowest value (LV)

2. Estimate the number of classes (k) using Sturge’s

approximation formula below.
• Round off k to the next higher integer to accommodate
all the observations.
• NOT the usual nearest integer.

k = 1 + 3.322 (log n) where n = number of observations

 Frequency Distribution Table
3. Estimate the class size (c) using the formula
below. Round off c to the nearest whole number.
c = R/k
4. List the lower and upper limits of the first class.
• This class should include the lowest observed
value in the data set.
• For uniformity, let us agree that for our purposes,
the lower limit of the first class should start at the
lowest observed value.
 Frequency Distribution Table
5. List all the class limits by adding the class size
(c) to the limits of the previous class. The
highest class should contain the highest
observed in the data set.
6. Determine the frequency for each class.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Example: Construct the FDT of the final exam
scores of 40 students as shown below.
 Frequency Distribution Table
Solution:
1. R = HV – LV = 93 – 32 = 61
2. k = 1 + 3.322 (log n)
= 1 + 3.322 (log 40)
= 1 + 3.322 (1.6021)
= 1 + 5.322
= 6.322
k≈7
 Frequency Distribution Table
3. c = R/k = 61/7 = 8.71 ≈ 9
4. The lowest observed value is 32. So, the first
class is 32–40.
5. List the other classes by adding c=9 to each
class limit.
6. The resulting frequency distribution table is
shown below.
Frequency Distribution Table
 Seatwork/ Exercise
1. Consider the given data below which show
the scores of 60 students in a statistics test.
 Seatwork/ Exercise
2. The data below shows the ages of 40
teachers in a private school in Manila.
28 29 34 25 49 37 58 21 20 30
25 59 61 22 31 64 45 37 31 49
37 23 21 32 25 24 57 28 32 52
48 36 33 46 38 37 47 25 29 26
24 37 60 22 24 60 32 42 45 40
 Seatwork/ Exercise
3. Consider the data below which represents the
third quarter grades of 29 students in
Mathematics 4

71, 84, 94, 93,84, 92, 83, 77, 98, 88, 88, 82, 84,
80, 89, 76, 90, 78, 76, 88, 90, 73, 97, 72, 76, 91,
88, 84, 91
 Seatwork/ Exercise
4.
 Graphical Presentation
• A graph or chart is any device used in
presenting numerical values or relationship in
pictorial form.
• The graphical display is the most effective way
of presenting data since it can easily attract
the attention as well as the interest of the
reader.
 Graphical Presentation
A. Common Graphs for Qualitative Data
1. Bar graph. This graph uses rectangular bars,
the length of which represents the frequency of
each type or category.
 Graphical Presentation
2. Multiple bar graph. This graph is useful when
the researcher wants to compare figures on two
or more different occurrence.
 Graphical Presentation
• 3. Pie chart. This chart is used to present
quantities that make up a whole. Usually, pie
charts are constructed using percents and the
slices are drawn in proportion to the different
values of each class, item, group or category.
The whole area of the pie is regarded as 100%.
Graphical Presentation
 Graphical Presentation
4. Line Chart. The line chart is especially useful
in showing trends over a period of time.
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
1. Histogram
The histogram is a graph which is primarily
composed of vertical bars that are interconnected.
In a histogram, the base of each bar is the class
boundary with its height equal to its class
frequency.
Thus, a histogram is a graph in which the class
boundaries are plotted on the horizontal axis
against the class frequency plotted on the vertical
axis.
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
2. Frequency polygon
• The frequency polygon is a line chart which is
constructed by plotting the classmark against
the frequency.
• The graph is then obtained by connecting the
consecutive points using a straight line.
• The polygon is closed by considering
additional classmark at each end with a
frequency of zero.
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
3. Ogive
a. "Less than" ogive is a graph where "less than"
cumulative frequency is plotted against upper
limit (or upper class boundary)
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
• b. "Greater than" ogive – is a graph where
"greater than" cumulative frequency is plotted
against lower limit (or lower class boundary)
 Graphs Associated with the
Frequency Distribution Table
• b. "Greater than" ogive – is a graph where
"greater than" cumulative frequency is plotted
against lower limit (or lower class boundary)