Human motion

• Humans, like all known things in the

universe, are in constant
motion however, aside from obvious
movements of the various
external body parts and locomotion,
humans are in motion in a variety of
ways which are more difficult
to perceive.
• The study of human body as a
machine for the performance of work
has its foundations in three major
areas of mechanics, anatomy and
physiology.
• More specifically biomechanics,
musculoskeletal anatomy and
neromuscular physiology.
• In human motion nothing is haphazard,
nothing is left to chance.
• Every structure that participated in the
movement of the body does so in
obedience to physical and physiological
principles.
 Internal body
• The human heart is constantly
contracting to move blood throughout
the body.
• Through larger veins and arteries in the
body blood has been found to travel at
approximately 0.33 m/s.
• Though considerable variation exists,
and peak flows in the venae cavae have
been found between 0.1 m/s and
0.45 m/s
• The smooth muscles of hollow
internal organs are moving.
• The most familiar would
be peristalsis which is where
digested food is forced throughout
the digestive tract.
• Though different foods travel through
the body at rates, an average speed
through the human small intestine is
2.16 m/h (0.036 m/s).
• Typically some sound is audible at any
given moment, when the vibration of
these sound waves reaches the ear
drum it moves in response and allows
the sense of hearing.
• The human lymphatic system is
constantly moving excess fluids, lipids,
and immune system related products
around the body.
• The lymph fluid has been found to
move through a lymph capillary of
the skin at approximately
0.0000097 m/s.
 Cells
• The cells of the human body have many structures
which move throughout them.
• Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move
molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm
• Various motor proteins work as molecular
motors within a cell and move along the surface of
various cellular substrates such as microtubules.
• Motor proteins are typically powered by the
hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and
convert chemical energy into mechanical work.
• Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have been
found to have a velocity of approximately
0.00000152 m/s
 Particles
• According to the laws of
thermodynamics all particles of matter are in constant
random motion as long as the temperature is
above absolute zero.
• Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the
human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving.
• This motion can be detected as temperature; higher
temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in
the particles, feel warm to humans whom sense the
thermal energy transferring from the object being
touched to their nerves.
• Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched,
the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the
body as feeling cold
 Earth
• The Earth is rotating or spinning around
its axis, this is evidenced
by day and night, at the equator the earth
has an eastward velocity of 0.4651 km/s
(1040 mi/h).
• The Earth is orbiting around the Sun in
an orbital revolution.
• A complete orbit around the sun takes
one year or about 365 days; it averages a
speed of about 30 km/s (67,000 mi/h).
 Types of motion

• Simple harmonic motion – oscillation

and pendular motion (e.g. spring
and pendulum).
 Linear and curvilinear motion
• Rectilinear motion (Linear motion) or
translatory motion – motion which follows
a straight linear path from one location to
other and whose displacement is exactly
the same as its trajectory.
• All the parts of the object move the same
distance in the same direction and at the
same time. If the movement occurs not in
a straight line but in a curved path, it is
curvilinear motion.
 Reciprocating motion
• Reciprocating (i.e. vibration)
 Brownian motion
the random movements of particles
 Rotation
• It is a circular movement of an
object around a center or point of
rotation
• A rotation about an external point,
e.g. the Earth about the Sun, is
called a revolution or orbital
revolution, typically when it is
produced by gravity.
 Rotary motion
• or angular motion – a motion about a
fixed point.
• All the parts of the object move
through the same angle, in the same
direction and at the same time.
• They do not move the same distance.
When a person flexes the elbow the
hand travels farther through space
than does the wrist or forearm
 Rolling
• combines rotation and translation of
that object with respect to a surface
(either one or the other moves),
such that, if ideal conditions exist,
the two are in contact with each
other without sliding.
Physical activity
Exercise therapy
Biomechanics
Kinetics and kinematics
 Physical activity:

• Body movements produced

by contraction of skeletal
muscles which results in
energy expenditure.
 Exercise:
• Subclass of physical activity
that includes planned,
structured and repetitive
bodily movement which is
done to improve or maintain
one or more components of
physical fitness.
 Exercise Therapy :

• Motion of the body or its

parts to relieve symptoms
or to improve function,
leading to physical
fitness.
Biomechanics applies the
mechanical principles of physics
in the study 0f human
movement.
 Biomechanics.
• It is the study of the structure and
function of biological systems such
as humans, animals, plants, organs,
and cells by means of the methods of
mechanics.
The word biomechanics developed
during the early 1970s, describing
the application of engineering
mechanics to biological and medical
systems.
• An interdisciplinary science based on
the fundamentals of physics and life
sciences concerned with basic laws
governing the effect that forces have
on the state of rest or motion of
humans.
• Necessary to study the body’s
mechanical characteristics & principles
to understand its movements
• The study of biomechanics ranges from
the inner workings of a cell to the
movement and development of limbs,
to the mechanical properties of soft
tissue and bones.
• Such research utilizes force platforms
to study human ground reaction forces
and infrared videography to capture the
trajectories of markers attached to the
human body to study human 3D
motion.
• Research also applies
electromyography (EMG) system to
study the muscle activation.
• By this, it is feasible to investigate the
muscle responses to the external
forces as well as perturbations.
• Biomechanics is widely used in
orthopedic industry to design
orthopedic implants for human
joints, dental parts, external
fixations and other medical purposes.
• Elasticity
Describes materials that return to
their rest shape after applied
stresses are removed.
• Plasticity
Describes materials that permanently
deform after a sufficient applied
stress.
Definition of biomechaics
• It is a study of mechanics in human
body.

Or

• It is an application of mechanics to
living human body.
The study of
forces
associated
with motion.
 Kinetics:
• It is the area of biomechanics
concerned with the description of
motion and the forces producing the
motion or maintaining equilibrium.
• It is an analysis of the force which will
either resist or assist the movement.
A study of the
description of motion
including
consideration of space
and time.
 Kinematics
• It is the area of biomechanics that
include description of motion and
NOT THE FORCES that cause
them.
• It is a science of motion of the body
in space. This may include
movement of a single point on the
body (COG), position of several
segments (extremity).
• It is bound by Newton’s 2nd Law.
( law of acceleration.)
 Linear kinematics:
•
- The branch of dynamics concerned
with the description of linear motion.
 Angular kinematics:
• - Involves rotation about an axis
or point, is the description of
angular motion using the
quantitative terms of
displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.
 Kinematics' includes:

• 1. Type of motion
• 2. Location of motion
• 3. Direction of motion
• 4. Magnitude of motion
• 5. Rate of motion
 1. Type of motion:

• Description of movement occurring, it

is divided in to two.
1. Osteokinamatics:
• This is concerned with the movements
of the bones in space without regards
to the movement of joint surfaces.
Description of movement of the
moving body segment is called
Osteokinamatics.
 Extension of knee joint

• The movement of the body segment

usually takes the form of an angular
rotation around its axis (swing) e.g.
movement of the leg where – Tibia &
fibula is the bony lever and
movement is in the form of swing
around the axis at knee joint.
• The lever swings around relatively
fixed axis.
 Arthrokinematics:

• This is concerned with

movement of the bones
adjoining joint surfaces move in
relation with each other in same
or opposite direction.
• Description of movement occurring
between articular surfaces of the
joint.
• Movements are spins / Rotation /
glides / translations & Rolls.
All movements occur in varying
combination throughout the full range
of movement between two bones
depends on the anatomy of the joint &
surrounding musculature.
E.g. Knee extension – combination of
gliding & rolling between the bones
throughout the movement with a
pronounced spin between lateral
condyle of Tibia & femur just before
full extension is reached.
This is concerned with the
movement of articular
surfaces in relation to the
direction of movement of
the distal extremity of the
bone.
 THE TYPE OF MOTION
• an object's change in position
relative to a reference point
• The magnitude (extent) of the
force relative to the magnitude
of the resistance is the
determine factor in causing an
object to move.
It is of three types - linear,
angular and curvilinear motion
 Translatory (Linear)
motion:-
• It is a movement of an object or
segment in a straight line.
• Each point on the object moves
through the same distance at same
time in a parallel path.
• Another form of translatory motion
occurs if one surface moves parallel
to the flat surface of another object,
this form of translatory motion is
known as gliding.
• Pure linear motion involves uniform
motion of the system of interest,
with all system parts moving in the
same direction at the same speed.
• Linear motion is also referred to as
translatory motion, or translation.
• Linear motion may also be thought of
as motion along a line.
• If the line is straight, the motion is
rectilinear.
• if the line is curved, the motion is
curvilinear.
• A motorcyclist maintaining a motionless
posture as the bike moves along a straight
path is moving rectilinearly.
• If the motorcyclist jumps the bike and the
frame of the bike does not rotate, both
rider and bike (with the exception of the
spinning wheels) are moving curvilinearly
A) Linear Motion
 Curvilinear motion:-

• If an object rotates about an axis and

moves through the space in same time,
the object is said to be in curvilinear
motion.
• Example of Circular Motion is special
form of curvilinear, but is considered
more of a linear motion because once it
is released, it will travel in a straight
line (think about out in space), if
gravity acts on the object will then
make a curved line (curvilinear) motion
 B) Curvilinear Motion

When points in the

body move in
curved parallel
lines.
e.g. free fall
skydiving, path of
an arrow
If the path of two points on a body follow straight parallel
lines, the motion is linear. If the path is curved, the motion
is curvilinear.
 The hammer throw follows a
circular path until it is released,
then it flies along in a
curvilinear motion."
Rotatory (Angular) motion
:-
• It is a movement of an object or
segment around a fixed axis in a
curved path.
• Each point on the object moves
through the same angle at the
same time at a constant distance
from the axis of motion.
• Almost all volitional human movement
involves rotation of a body segment around
an imaginary axis of rotation that passes
through the center of the joint to which the
segment attaches.
• When angular motion or rotation occurs,
portions of the body in motion are
constantly moving relative to other portions
of the body.
 C) Angular Motion

Rotation about an axis that can be

internal (axis inside the body) or
external (axis outside the body).
E.g. swinging on a high bar, a
forward roll, hammer throwing, pole
vault over bar.
 General Motion
• When translation and rotation are
combined, the resulting movement is
general motion.
• Human movement usually consists of
general motion rather than pure
linear or angular motion.
• A football kicked, translates through
the air as it simultaneously rotates
around a central axis.
• A runner is translated along by
angular movements of body
segments at the hip, knee, and
ankle.
 Mechanical Systems
• Before determining the nature of a
movement, the mechanical system of
• interest must be defined.
• In many circumstances, the entire
human body is chosen as the system
to be analyzed or the right arm or
perhaps even a ball being projected
by the right arm.
• When an overhand throw is
executed, the body as a whole
displays general motion, the motion
of the throwing arm is primarily
angular, and the motion of the
released ball is linear.
• Rotation of a body segment at a joint
occurs around an imaginary line
known as the axis of rotation that
passes through the joint center.
 D) General Motion

Linear motion of
the body as a
result of angular
motion of other
parts of the body.
e.g. cycling,
swimming, using a
wheelchair
Rectilinear, curvilinear,
rotation
 2. THE LOCATION OF MOTION:-
• The movements have been
described in axis and planes.
• Axis is the line about which
movement takes place.
• Plane is the surface which lies at
right angle to axis and in which the
movement takes place.
Location of the movement:
• Identify and name the joint and
body segment involved in the action
and plane in which movement
occurs.
• For e.g. knee joint-moving segment
is leg.
• Extension movement in sagittal
plane around frontal axis.
 3. THE DIRECTION OF MOTION:-

• It is described as anatomical
movements such as
• Flexion and extension
• Abduction and adduction
• Rotation
 4. THE MAGNITUDE OF MOTION :-
• It can be given either in degrees or
radians.
• If a segment completes a full circle, it
has moved through 360 degrees or
6.28 radian.
• It is a range of motion of the joint
which is moving.

• A radian is the ratio of an arc to the

radius of its circle.
 5. THE RATE OF MOTION :-
• It can be given either in speed or in
velocity.
• Motion involves a change in the position
or place of a body depends on the
application of forces.
• In order to initiate body’s movement,
speeds it up or down unbalanced forces
are applied.
• For constant position balanced forces
are applied.
 Speed:
• scalar quantity specifying the rate of
motion related to distance.
• Speed = distance / time (d/t)
• It is the rate at which an object
moves
• It does not take into account the
direction of movement.
• Speed of relaxed passive
movements
• The speed at which a passive movement is
performed must be slow and uniform so
that relaxation can be maintained.
• Speed of active exercises
• There is a Natural speed for every exercise
which varies to some extent for each
individual and in general this is the speed at
which exercise should be done.
• The effect of many exercises can be
modified by an alteration of speed.
 Reduced speed
• Exercises are done more slowly
require greater muscular effort and
more control.
• Decrease in speed of repetitive
movements ensures time for full
ROM
 Increased speed

• Rapid movements requires strong

muscular effort but momentum is
gained which helps to increase the
ROM provided the direction is not
reversed before the force limit is
reached.
• Rapid exercise are stimulating but
frequently lead to inaccurate or trick
movements and full ROM is rarely
reached.
 Velocity:

• Velocity a vector quantity describing the

rate of displacement, distance traveled
per unit time related to displacement.
• Velocity = speed/ time (v=s/t)
• It is measured in m/sec, cm/sec,
miles/hour.
• It is the rate of change of
displacement.
• Change in either speed or direction will
change the velocity.
• For R.O.M we require velocity that
describe displacement and is
measured in units such as
• V = speed × direction
• E.g. If the arm swings forward &
backward at the shoulder the
velocity of the hand is greater than
that of elbow and arm.
 Acceleration :
• The rate at which velocity changes over
time.
• It is the rate of change of velocity.
• An object accelerates if its speed, direction, or
both can be changed.
• It is measured in m/sec².
• A positive acceleration cause
increase velocity and negative or
retardation causes Decrease in
velocity called deceleration.
• All bodies irrespective of their weight
are subject to the same uniform
acceleration as they fall freely under
gravity.
 Newton’s Law

• The study of the behavior of

the forces in the production
of motion is based on
Newton’s three laws which
explain relationship between
the forces acting on the body
and the motion of the body.
 Law 1

• Law stating that objects at rest remain at

rest and objects in motion continue in a
straight line unless acted upon by a net
external force.
NEWTON'S FIRST LAW is (Law of Inertia)
• This law states that an object will
remain at rest or in uniform motion
unless & until it is acted upon by an
external & unbalanced force.
• This law can be also stated as for an object
to remain in equilibrium, the sum of forces
acting on the body should be zero.
 Law of Inertia
• A body continues
in its state of rest
or of uniform
motion unless an
unbalanced force Fig 12.12

acts on it
• Friction & air
resistance effect
objects in motion
• The rotational inertia of planet Earth
is what fixes the constancy of the
length of a day and the length of a
year.
 Inertia
• It is the property of a body to resist change
in state of rest or motion.
• Inertia may be defined as the reverse
effective force of a body.
• When muscles are extremely weak they
may not be able to generate enough force to
overcome initial inertia of the part and so
movement initiation.
• Yet may be able to continue that movement
once begun under these circumstances the
therapist will need to initiate movement and
the weak muscles will be encouraged to
continue it.
Law 2
 Newton’s 2nd law
(Law of Acceleration)
• The relationship between an object's mass
m, its acceleration a, and the applied force
• F is F = ma.
• In this law the direction of the force vector
is the same as the direction of the
acceleration vector.

• When a force acts on an object the change

in motion experienced by the object takes
place in the direction of the force and is
proportional to the size of the force and the
direction in which the force acts.
• It states that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the
unbalanced force acting upon it &
inversely proportional to the mass of
the object and takes place in the
direction of force.
• Any change of motion is due to the
application of unbalanced forces which may
• Initiate the movement
• Increase the velocity of movement
• Decrease the velocity of movement
• Change the direction of movement
• A large push applied to an object of
constant mass will produce more
acceleration than a small push.
• A push on an object of large mass will
produce less acceleration than an equal
push on an object of smaller mass.
• Thus we can say that inertia is directly
related to mass of the object.
• All alteration in human body movement
obeys this law.
• Acceleration of movement occurs
following the application of greater
muscular force in the existing direction
of movement and deceleration following
the breaking forces provided by an
opposing group of muscles.
• It also occurs as a result of loss of
force in prime movers as a result of
fatigue or reduced neurological
stimulation.
Law 3
 Newton’s 3rd Law (Law of
reaction) :-
• For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
• It can be restated that when one object
applies a force to the second object,
the second object simultaneously
applies a force of equal magnitude & in
opposite direction to that of a first
object.
This two forces always work in pairs
1. action force
2. reaction force
• E.g. in standing weight of the body
force applied to the floor an equal
reaction force is returned by the
floor to the feet as ground reaction
force.
 Law of Reaction
For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction

Fig 12.14 & 12.15

• The ability to maintain one’s balance
under unfavorable circumstance is
recognized as one of the basic motor
skills
 STABILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Balance
• It is a ability to control equilibrium.
• Or it is a state of bodily equilibrium.

• That means there must be no net force or

a torque.
• Hence, any forces and/or torques on the
body must be canceled or balanced by
opposing forces and/or torques.
• F1 = F2
• All objects at rest are in equilibrium
• All forces acting on them are balanced
• The sum of all linear forces equals zero
• The sum of all torques equals zero
• However, all objects at rest are not equally
stable
• Stability –
• The ability of a body to restore its
balance after a disturbance. (change
in position or orientation).
• or
• The ability to maintain bodily
equilibrium.
• The living creature has the ability to
deform its shape to counteract the forces
causing it to lose its balance.
• STATIC BALANCE is
a balance without
movement under
unfavourable
conditions.
• (for example, you
may do a
handstand for
longertime
skillfully)
• DYNAMIC BALANCE is
a balance whilst
moving,
• for example a
badminton player
moving across the
court, playing a shot.
and moving back into
the ready position
• When impetus is given the magnitude
and direction of force and accuracy to
apply it to the object is influenced by
general control and stability of body
as a whole.
• Stance is very important which
represents BOS a major factor of
stability.
• For physiotherapist both balance play
a large part in adjustments for
handicapped person in rehab
training.
• Learning to walk on crutches-
dynamic balance problem
• For amputee and paralytic patient-
problem in maintaining adequate
stance for balance.
Stability
 Stability and Balance
• Different mechanical factors affect a
body's stability.

• According to Newton's second law of

motion, the more massive an object
is, the greater the force required to
produce a given acceleration.
 Stability and Balance
• The greater the amount of friction
between an object and the surface,
or surfaces it contacts, the greater
the force requirement for initiating or
maintaining motion.
 Factors affecting stability:
• 1. Relationship of line of gravity to
base of support.
• 2. The height of the center of gravity.
• 3. The size and shape of base of
support.
• 4. The mass of the body.
• 5. Supporting surface (Friction,
inclination, irregularities).
• 6. Segmentation.
• 7. Visual and psychological factors.
• 8. Physiological factors.
• 9. Speed
Stability Of Human Body:

• When a body rests on a surface its

line of action must pass through its
base of support.
• The degree of stability of a
human body depends on base of
support, LOG and center of
gravity.
The closer the COG of the object to the
BOS, the more stable the object.

• Consideration of height of COG and BOS

are important factor while devising
progressing exercises.
• Raising the COG of the part and reducing
BOS will increase the difficulty of an
exercise by decreasing stability of the
body and so the muscle work and
coordination required to perform it.
 The CLOSER
your centre of
gravity is to the
centre of your
base of
support, the
MORE STABLE
you are.
 The larger the BOS of an object,
the greater the stability of
object.
• A large base allows greater
displacement of the body without
overturning.
• Standing with wide base increase
stability of the body in upright
position.
• Walking aids such as walker, crutches
and sticks are used for this purpose
only.
The LARGER the
area of your
Base of Support,
the MORE
STABLE you will
be
The object cannot be stable unless
its LOG falls within the BOS
• The stability is greatest in the lying
position progressively lessen as the
COG is raised and the BOS is
reduced as in sitting and standing
positions so the line of gravity falls
nearer to the margin of base of
support.
 Principle 1
The closer the line of gravity is to the
centre of the base of support, the
greater the probability of maintaining
balance.
 Principle 2

The broader the base

of support, the
greater the
probability of
maintaining
balance.
 Principle 3

The probability of
maintaining
balance is
increased when
the COG is
lowered in
relation to the
base of support.
 Principle 4

The further the body part

moves away from the line of
gravity, the probability of
maintaining balance
decreases unless another
body part moves to
compensate for it.
 Example of lifting bottle
• lift conveys that the water bottle is heavy.
The character does not extend her arms
away from her body and she also uses her
legs to help lift.
• Regardless of her strength, she needs to
keep the heavy bottle close to her body so
as to keep the total center of gravity (her
plus the bottle) located over her base of
support (her feet). She also leans
backwards for the same reason.
 Mobility
• Mobility & stability have an inverse
relationship.
• A critical point is the change from a
position of stability to a state of
mobility & vice versa
• To initiate a step, line of gravity must
be shifted forward of the base of
support, swing then moves forward
to reestablish a base of support
• Both speed and direction of desired
mobility are used to determine the
nature of the change in stability
required to initiate motion
• To enhance the speed of a start, the
line of gravity should be as close as
possible to the edge of the base of
support.
Mobility

Fig 14.14a
• To enhance the speed of a start, the
line of gravity should be as close as
possible to the edge of the base of
support
• A quick stop requires a large base of
support, lower CG, and move the line
of gravity away form the leading
edge of the base of support
• Your base of support changes as you
rise from a seated position and this
affects the poses.
• When rising slowly the center of
gravity needs to remain above this
base for the character to maintain
balance at all times.
• Notice that rising from a chair with
arms is easier because the hands
may be used to expand the base of
support.
• If the character stands up quickly
then some of the poses may be out
of balance.
Balance may be achieved
with support
Balance may be achieved
with support
• forces pushing or pulling in the
horizontal direction when those
forces exert a balancing counter-
torque.
• The character’s pose is obviously out
of balance. The upward and
downward forces are not aligned so
they produce a torque that causes a
rotation. The character tips backward
and falls on her back.
• The same pose is in balance when
the character leans against a wall
since the rotation is prevented by
horizontal support forces. There are
two horizontal forces that create the
balancing counter-torque:
• * The wall pushes the character
towards the right.
• * The frictional force of the ground
pushes towards the left.
It’s important to think about these
forces because they affect the
character’s pose (e.g., the angle of
the lower leg as it braces against the
frictional force pushing on the foot).
• The character’s
pose is the
same if the
force on her
back were due
to someone
trying to push
her forward.
•
 Principles of Mechanical
Stability
When other factors are held
constant, a body’s ability to
maintain equilibrium is increased
by the following:
– Increasing body mass
– Increasing friction between the
body and the surface or surfaces
contacted
 Mass of the Body
• Only a factor when motion or an
external force is involved
• Amount of force needed to effect a
change in motion is proportional to
the mass being moved
• The greater the mass, the greater
the stability
• The HEAVIER you are, the MORE STABLE
you will be.
 Friction
• Friction is related to the size of the
base of support
• It has greater influence when body is
in motion or being acted on by an
external force
• Inadequate friction makes it more
difficult to maintain equilibrium
 Principles of Mechanical
Stability
• 1. Increasing the size of the base of
support in the direction of the line of
action of an external force.
• 2. Horizontally positioning the CG
near the edge of the base of support
on the oncoming external force.
• 3. Vertically positioning the center of
gravity as low as possible.
• Leaning in to the wind
• Place the feet in a foreword-backward
stance to catch a ball
• Person jumps off from moving bus he fell
down as bus imparted kinetic energy to
him and he receives momentum.
• To avoid fall he faced forward, leaned
backward and taken a few running step in
the direction as bus ensures gradualloss of
kinetic energy.
Size of the base of Support
• CG must remain
within the base
of support in Standing
order to maintain Walking
stable and in
equilibrium
• Easier with larger
Headstand
base of support Fig 14.6
Shape of the base of
Support

Fig 14.6c
Fig 14.6b

Resistance to Resistance to
AP forces lateral forces
 Vertical Center of Gravity
• Height and location of Center of
Gravity along a vertical line (y axis)
 Height of the Center of
Gravity
a > b > c with respect to lateral stability
 Height of Center of Gravity
(CG)
• Height of CG changes with body
position along the vertical line
• As CG moves closer to base of
support more angular displacement
can occur before it goes beyond the
base of support
FINDING THE CENTER OF GRAVITY IN THE
HUMAN BODY

• Reaction Board Method

• Segmental Method
 Reaction Board Technique
• Relies on the fact that the sum of the
moments acting on a body in
equilibrium is zero
• The location of the gravitational line is
found for each plane
• The CG is the intersection of the values
for each of these three planes
• Limited to the body in a stationary
position
 Center of gravity
• Segmental method - procedure for
determining total body center of
mass location based on the masses
and center of mass locations of the
individual body segments.
 Segmental Method
• A highly useful procedure find the CG for
someone in action
Technique uses;
• a photograph of the subject
• Involves finding the CG of each body segment
• The position of these gravity points are placed
on x and y axes
• Knowledge of the ratio between the individual
segment weight and total body weight
 Relationship of the Line of
Gravity to the Base of
Support
• To maintain equilibrium, line of
gravity must remain within its base
of support

Fig 14.9 &

14.10
 Segmental Alignment
• The human body consists of a series
of segments placed one above the
other, the problem of retaining
equilibrium is a multiple one
• When segments are aligned in a
single vertical line, there is less likely
hood of strain to joints and muscles
• When one segment gets out of line,
another segment must compensate
for it
• In human body segments are united in a
zigzag manner.
• If one segment is out of line there is
usually compensatory alignment of
another segment in order to maintain a
balance.(every zig has zag).
• At every point of angulation between
segments uneven tension thrown on
ligaments and uneven tonus in oppsite
muscle results in strain orfatigue.
 Visual and Psychological
Factors
• The effect of crossing a swirling river on a
foot bridge is a detriment to one’s
equilibrium
• Even if the supporting surface is adequate
• The sense of balance may be disturbed,
extraordinary stimuli
• Compensation: fix eyes on a stationary spot
above or beyond the “danger area”
• Seems to facilitate neuromuscular control
by reducing the disturbing stimuli
 Physiological Factors
• Semicircular canals can affect
equilibrium
– Colds, viruses, and other problems can
affect the inner ear may also interfere
with balance
• Any disturbance of the general
physical condition is likely to affect
the sense of balance
• Feeling of dizziness with nausea or
debility reduces one’s resistance to
other factors which affects balance.
• It is beyond our control.
• Better to avoid situations which are
likely to threaten the equilibrium
when it is a temporary physiologic
disturbance.
 Principles of Stability:

I. Other things being equal, the lower

the CG, the greater will be the
body’s stability
II. Greater stability is obtained if the
base of support is widened in the
direction of the line of force
 Principles of Stability
III. For maximum stability the line of
gravity should intersect the base of
support at a point that will allow the
greatest range of movement within
the area of the base in the direction
of the forces causing motion
 Principles of Stability:

IV. Other things being equal, the

greater the mass of a body, the
greater will be its stability
V. Other things being equal, the most
stable position of a vertical
segmented body is one in which the
CG of each weight-bearing
segments lies in a vertical line
centered over the base of support
 Principles of Stability:

VI. Other things being equal, the

greater the friction between the
supporting surface and the parts of
the body in contact with it, the
more stable the body will be
VII. Other things being equal, a person
has better balance in locomotion
under difficult circumstances when
the vision is focused on stationary
objects rather than on disturbing
 Principles of Stability:

VIII.There is a positive relationship

between one’s physical and
emotional state and the ability to
maintain balance under difficult
circumstances
IX. Regaining equilibrium is based on
the same principles as maintaining
it.
• For the movements of the body to be
properly performed a definite normal
relation of the parts to one another must
be maintained, whether the body is in a
state of motion or at rest.
• During movement the position of the
bones is controlled by themuscles;
• when at rest, themusclesrelax and the
position of the bones is controlled by the
ligaments.
• The weight of the body acts as a constant force
pressing downward. For this constant pressure
not to do harm it is nicely balanced on the bones
and ligaments aided by the muscles. If any one
of these three is disturbed the balance is altered
and disability and ultimate deformity results. A
distortion of a bone, as a badly united fracture,
throws the weight and muscular action too much
to one side and first the action of the part is
impaired and then, if use is persisted in,
deformity increases.
• When a person who is standing
becomes tired they assume a
position of rest, that is, their muscles
relax, their joints are extended and
the weight is borne on the ligaments.
If, now, as in adolescents, these
ligaments are weak, they give way.
• If in the foot, flat-foot results; if in
the knees, the knock-knee; if in the
back,scoliosis or lateral curvature. If
it is the bones which are the primary
cause of the lack of proper balance,
the surgeon by osteotomy, excisions,
etc., will restore them to their proper
direction.
• If it is the muscles, as in infantile
and other paralyses,
transplantations, or the taking of a
tendon from the strong side and
placing it on the weak side, will be
resorted to.
• If it is mainly the ligaments, these
will be aided in theirfunctionby the
use of apparatus, while by means of
exercises the muscles are aided in
regaining their normal power. The
conservative surgery of the
extremities has as its underlying
principle the restoration of
equilibrium to a part whose balance
has been disturbed.
Question: Which of the following gymnasts is the
MOST STABLE?

Gymnast A

Gymnast B Gymnast C
Gymnast A is the most stable because:
•They have the lowest centre of gravity
•They have the largest base of support
•And like gymnast C their centre of gravity is in
the centre of the base of support
X X

X
• In many activities balance can be very important.
Gravity plays an important part in balance.
Gravity is the force pulling a person or object to
the ground.
• The point at which gravity on the body is known
as the centre of gravity. This will change
depending on your height, shape or the position
in which you stand.
• Balance is not difficult while a person’s centre of
gravity is directly above their base of support, but
when it moves to one side, the force of gravity act
more on that side causing the person to topple
over
 EQUILIBRIUM
• A body is said to be in equilibrium
when all the forces acting upon the
body are perfectly balanced & the
body remains at rest.
• It is any condition in which all acting
forces are cancelled by others
resulting in a stable balanced
system.
• Static equilibrium is used to describe a
stationary object or person
• Dynamic equilibrium is used to describe an
object or person travelling at a constant
speed, in the same direction
 Static equilibrium
• Objects which are at rest have zero net
force acting on them.
• For example, an object on a level surface
is pulled (attracted) downward toward the
center of the Earth by the force of gravity.
At the same time, surface forces resist the
downward force with equal upward force
(called the normal force).
• The situation is one of zero net force and
no acceleration.
• Whenever a body is completely
motionless, it is in static equilibrium.
• Three conditions must be met for a
body to be in a state of static
equilibrium:
1) The sum of all vertical forces (or force
components) acting on the body must
be 0,
 Equilibrium
2) the sum of all horizontal forces (or
force components) acting on the body
must be 0, and
3) the sum of all torques must be 0.

• The application of any unopposed

(net) force to a body results in
acceleration of the body.
 Dynamic equilibrium
• Any object traveling at a constant
velocity must be subject to zero net
force (resultant force).

• Read more: Musculoskeletal System - Biology Encyclopedia - body, human, specific,

membrane, water, produce, common, first http://www.biologyreference.com/Mo-
Nu/Musculoskeletal-System.html#ixzz2A1808oi9
 Equations of dynamic
equilibrium
• Bodies in motion are considered to
be in a state of dynamic equilibrium,
with all forces acting resulting in
equal and oppositely directed inertial
forces.

• A balance exists between applied

forces and inertial forces for a body
in motion.
 Types of equilibrium:
• Stable.
• Unstable.
• Neutral.
 Types
• Stable equilibrium :-
• If the forces acting upon the body at rest tend to
restore it to its original position after it has been
displaced, the body is said to be in stable
equilibrium.
When the object is displaced slightly,
it tends to return to its position.
It can be over turned without first
raising its COG.
The greater the distance the COG is
raised the greater the stability.
Human body can not be in a state of
stable equilibrium except when fully
supported in lying.
• This condition of equilibrium is most
stable when the COG is as low as
possible so considerable effort is
required to displace the body in
order to raise it.
• The BOS is usually large allowing
the line of gravity to fall easily within
it ( LOG falls at the centre of an
extensive base.)
 Stable Equilibrium
• Occurs when an
object is placed
in such a fashion
that an effort to
disturb it would Fig 14.5a
require its CG to
be raised
 Unstable equilibrium :-

• If a body is given an initial displacement & the

forces acting upon the body tend to increase this
initial displacement, the body is said to be in
unstable equilibrium.
• When the object is displaced slightly it tends to
increase its displacement, the COG is lowered
and fall outside the base of support immediately
and the object fall.
• The narrower the base of support and the higher
the COG the more unstable a body (It occur
during activity)
• The body continue in the line of
displacement force leading to
overturning of COG tends to be high
initially with small BOS and line of
gravity falls entirely outside the BOS
followed by lowering of COG
• example – toe standing
 Unstable Equilibrium
• A slight disturbance
will drop the objects
CG to a lower point
• An unstable objects
seeks stability by
falling from a Fig 14.5b
smaller to a larger
base of support
 Neutral equilibrium :-

• If in spite of displacement of a body,

the height & position of its COG
remain the same in relation to the
base, the body is said to be in
neutral equilibrium.
• Example – when a ball moves on
a plane surface
 Neutral Equilibrium
• Occurs when an
object’s CG is
neither raised nor
lowered when it
is disturbed Fig 14.5c
• Remains the
same
• Inertial property
• The normal upright position of man is
obtained by maintaining a proper balance.
• This balance can be disturbed either
anteroposteriorly or laterally.
• The lower limbs are placed laterally, one
on each side; this gives greater stability in
that direction, so that when a person falls
it is usually in a forward or backward
direction rather than toward the side.
Anteroposterior Equilibrium
• Fig. A. - The body in the erect position; the
centre of gravity c is about in the upper lumbar
region; d-e is the base of support. The vertical
line a-b through the centre of gravity c passes
through the occipito-atloid joint above, in front of
the sacro-iliac joint g, the hip-joint h, the knee-
jointi and the ankle-joint j and falls between the
points of support d-e, passing through the
astragaloscaphoid joint. Hyperextension of the
hip and knee is prevented by ligaments.
• Fig. B. - When the trunk is inclined
forward by bending at the hip-joint, the
increased projection of the head and
upper portion of the trunk in front of the
centre of gravity is counterbalanced by the
increased projection of the hips and lower
portion of the trunk posteriorly. The
vertical line through the centre of gravity
still cuts the base of support d-e and the
body remains in a state of equilibrium
• Fig. C. - When the body inclines
backward, hyperextension at the hip
is prevented by ligaments; therefore,
when the vertical line a-b through
the centre of gravity c falls beyond
the base of support d-e, the body is
in unstable equilibrium and it falls.
• Fig. D. - If the body, as occurs in
some diseases and injuries, is
inclined so far forward as to bring
the vertical line a-b through the
centre of gravity c, in front of the
base of support d-e, then it is in a
state of unstable equilibrium and
additional support is used, in the
form of a cane, to prevent falling
forward.
Lateral equilibrium.
• Fig. A. - The body being erect, a
vertical line a-b through the centre of
gravity c falls midway between the
ankles or base of support d-e and
the body is in stable equilibrium.
• Fig. B. - The trunk being inclined to
the right, the centre of gravity c is
shifted to the right and a vertical line
a-b through it falls still within the line
of support d-e and the upright
position can still be maintained.
• Fig. C. - If the relative length of the
two legs is altered, as by placing a
block beneath one of them, the
pelvis and upper portion of the body
inclines to the opposite side, until a
vertical line a-b through the centre of
gravity C falls beyond the extremity
of the base of support d-e and the
body is in a position of unstable
equilibrium.
• Fig. D. - The body in a position of
rest. The weight is borne mainly on
the left leg; the right side of the
pelvis falls until the iliotrochanteric
and iliotibial bands are tense, when
the position can be maintained
without muscular effort.
 Base of support
• Definition :
Area bound by the outermost regions
of contact between a body and
support surface or surfaces.
The base, as applied to a rigid body, is the
area by which it is supported.
• The base of support is the supporting area
beneath a body which includes both the
body parts in direct contact with the
surface and the area covered by the
contact points.
• For a man in standing position feet
are the BOS, in sitting buttocks, in
lying whole posterior aspect of the
body in contact.
• "When an object has multiple
bases of contact with the ground
(e.g., 4 legs), the base of support
is the entire area that surrounds
all the points of contact."
• When the line of action of a body’s
weight moves outside the base of
support, a torque is created that
tends to cause angular motion of the
body, thereby disrupting stability
with the CG falling toward the
ground.
• With larger BOS it will not happen.
• The horizontal location of the CG relative
to the base of support can also influence
stability.

• The closer the horizontal location of the

CG to the boundary of the base of
support, the smaller the force required to
push it outside the base of support,
thereby disrupting equilibrium.
• Alternatively, if a horizontal force
must be sustained, stability is
enhanced if the CG is positioned
closer to the oncoming force, since
the CG can be displaced farther
before being moved outside the base
of support.
The MORE YOU LEAN
into an oncoming
force, the MORE
STABLE you will be.

Direction of the
Force
• The height of the CG relative to the
base of support can also affect
stability.

• The higher the positioning of the CG,

the greater the potentially disruptive
torque created if the body undergoes
an angular displacement.
• The hiker’s pose on
the left suggests that
his pack is light. The
pose on the right tells
you that the pack is
heavy because he has
to lean forward to
keep the total center
of gravity over his
base of support (his
feet).
Fixation and stabilisation

• Fixation describes a state of

immobility.
• It means to prevent joint motion by
maintaining postures and localize
movement to specific joints.
• Active fixation of joint is usually
obtained due to co contraction of
muscles.
Fixation and stabilisation

• passive fixation by means of manual

pressure, straps and sandbags.
• It is used to improve the efficiency
of muscles by fixing their origin or
localized movement in the
performance of passive movements.
Fixation and stabilisation

• Stabilisation is describes as
relative stability.
• Activity is achieved by stabilization of
areas which are not required to take
part in the movement.
Fixation and stabilisation

• Some adjustments of the position of these

areas may need to be made during the
progress of the movement to increase its
efficiency or to maintain balance.
• Fractures, joint injuries and disease
require long term immobility of joints
usually require fixation by mechanical
means with splintage, traction or
operative means of plating and bone
grafting.
Fixation and stabilisation
Fixation and stabilisation
Fixation and stabilisation
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phenomena ( physics )