The Chemist’s View of

Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms.
 These atoms form chemical bonds that follow the laws
of nature.
Types of CARBOHYDRATE
 Simple
 Monosaccharide's
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Galactose
 Disaccharides (Monosac + Glucose)
 Maltose
 Sucrose (Table sugar)
 Lactose (Milk sugar)
The Simple Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharrides are single sugars
 Glucose serves as the essential energy source, and is
commonly known as blood sugar or dextrose.

 Fructose is the sweetest, occurs naturally in honey and

fruits, and is added to many foods in the form of high-
fructose corn syrup.

 Galactose rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar.

The Simple Carbohydrates
 Disaccharides are pairs of
monosaccharides, one of which is always
glucose
 Maltose = glucose + glucose

 Sucrose = glucose + fructose

 Lactose = glucose + galactose

The Disaccharides
Simple Carbohydrates
 Maltose = two glucose units. It is produced
during the germination of seeds and
fermentation.
 Sucrose is refined from sugarcane and sugar
beets, tastes sweet, and is readily available.
Called table sugar
 Lactose is found in milk and milk products.
Called milk sugar
The Complex Carbohydrates
 Few (oligosaccharides) or many
(polysaccharides) glucose units
bound/linked together in straight or
branched chains.
Types of CARBOHYDRATE
 Complex = Polysaccharides
 Starch
 Fiber
 Glycogen
The Complex Carbohydrates
 Starches
 Storage form of glucose in plants
 Found in grains, tubers, and legumes

 Glycogen
 Storage form of glucose in the body
 Provides a rapid release of energy when needed
 Glycogen
A glycogen molecule contains
hundreds of glucose units in
highly branched chains. Each
new glycogen molecule needs
a special protein for the
attachment of the first
glucose (shown here in red).
Starch (amylopectin) Starch (amylose)
A starch molecule contains hundreds of
glucose molecules in either occasionally
branched chains (amylopectin) or
unbranched chains (amylose).
Stepped Art
Fig. 4-8, p. 106
The Complex Carbohydrates
 Dietary fibers provide structure in plants, are very
diverse, and cannot be broken down by human
enzymes.
 Soluble fibers are viscous and can be digested by
intestinal bacteria (this property is also known as
fermentability). These fibers are found in fruits and
vegetables, oats, barley, legumes.

 Insoluble fibers are nonviscous and are not

digested by intestinal bacteria. These fibers are
found in whole grains and vegetables.
 Carbohydrates-Dietary
Guidelines
 Choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains
often
 Choose and prepare foods and beverages with little added
sugars or caloric sweeteners, such as amounts by the
USDA Food Guide and DASH Eating Plan
 Reduce incidence of dental caries by practicing good oral
hygiene and consuming sugar and starch-containing foods
and beverages less frequently
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate Digestion
 In the mouth, the salivary enzyme amylase begins to
hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and
maltose.
 In the stomach, acid continues to hydrolyze starch
while fiber delays gastric emptying and provides a
feeling of fullness (satiety).
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate Digestion
 In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase among
other enzymes (maltase, sucrase, and lactase)
hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides and
ultimately monosaccharides.

 In the large intestine, fibers remain and attract

water, soften stools and ferment.
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate Absorption
 Primarily takes place in the small intestine

 Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active

transport.

 Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
 Lactose Intolerance
 Symptoms include bloating, abdominal
discomfort, and diarrhea.
 Causes include lactase deficiency due to a natural
decrease that occurs with aging or damaged
intestinal villi.
 Prevalence
 Lowest in Scandinavians and northern
Europeans
 Highest in Southeast Asians and native North
Americans
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates
 Lactose Intolerance - Dietary Changes
 Increase consumption of milk products gradually.
 Mix dairy with other foods.
 Spread dairy intake throughout the day.
 Use of acidophilus milk, yogurt, and kefir (fermented
products)
 Use of enzymes
 Individualization of diets
 Must be careful that vitamin and mineral deficiencies do
not develop
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Supplies energy
 Protein sparing
 Prevents ketosis
 Food sweeteners
 Fructose
 Sucrose
 Glucose
 Maltose
 Galactose
FUNCTIONS OF DIETARY FIBER

 Promotes regularity and

softer, larger stool
 Reduces hemorrhoids and
diverticula
RECOMMENDED CARBOHYDRATE
INTAKE
 RDA is 130 g/day for adults
 50-100 g of CHO/day to prevent ketosis
 Recommended: 45-65% of total kcal

 180-330 g of CHO/day (primarily from white bread,

soda, baked goods)
 50% of total kcal
 Worldwide the CHO intake is +70%
RECOMMENDED FIBER INTAKE
 Adequate Intake is 25 g/day for women and 38
g/day for men (14g/1000kacl)
 Daily Value= 25g/day for 2000 kcal diet
 Average U.S. intake= 13-17 g/day
PROBLEMS WITH
HIGH SUGAR INTAKES
 Empty calories
 Dental caries

 Glycemic index=the blood glucose response to a

given food compared to a standard
 Glycemic load=the amount of Carbohydrate in
food times the glycemic index for that food.
Related to structure, fiber content, amount of
processing, and macronutrient content
Effects of Ingesting
High Glycemic Load Foods
 Stimulates insulin release
 Insulin increases blood triglyceride levels
 Insulin increases LDL
 Insulin increase fat synthesis
 Increased risk for CVD
 Muscles may become resistant to insulin
 Increases risk of developing diabetes

 Become hungry quicker

PROBLEMS WITH HIGH
INTAKES OF DIETARY FIBER
 Too much fiber (>60 g/day) will:
 Require extra intake of fluids
 Bind to some vitamins
 Develop phytobezoars
 Fill the stomach of a young child quickly
Lactose Maldigestion
 Primary lactose maldigestion
 75% of world population
 Begins to develop around age 3 to 5 years

 Secondary lactose maldigestion

 Temporary decrease in lactase production
 25% of North American population
 Increases with age
Glucose in the Body
 The Constancy of Blood Glucose
 Maintaining Glucose Homeostasis
 Low blood glucose may cause dizziness and
weakness.

 High blood glucose may cause fatigue.

 Extreme fluctuations can be fatal.

Glucose in the Body
 A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. The body stores glucose as glycogen in liver and muscle cells.
2. The body uses glucose for energy if glycogen stores are available.
3. If glycogen stores are depleted, the body makes glucose from
protein.
 Gluconeogenesis converting protein to glucose.

 Protein-sparing action is having adequate carbohydrate

in the diet to prevent the breakdown of protein for energy.
 Blood Glucose Regulation
High Blood Sugar
Dietary Muscles
CHO •Used as fuel
•To glycogen
Insulin
Pancreas
Glucagon Liver
Liver
•Used as fuel
•Glycogenolysis Low Blood Sugar •To Glycogen
•Gluconeogenesis
•To Fat
Glucose in the Body
 A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
 Making ketone bodies from fat fragments
 The accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood is called ketosis.
 Ketosis upsets the acid-base balance in the body.

 The body can use glucose to make body fat when

carbohydrates are consumed excessively.
Glucose in the Body
 The Constancy of Blood Glucose
 The Regulating Hormones
 Insulin moves glucose into the cells and helps
to lower blood sugar levels.
 Glucagon brings glucose out of liver storage
and raises blood sugar levels.
 Epinephrine acts quickly to bring glucose out
of liver storage during times of stress and
stimulates gluconeogenesis.
Glucose in the Body
 The Constancy of Blood Glucose
 Balance glucose within the normal range by
eating balanced meals regularly with
adequate complex carbohydrates.
 Blood glucose can fall outside the normal
range with hypoglycemia or
HYPERGLYCEMIA (diabetes).
Glucose in the Body
 The Constancy of Blood Glucose
 Diabetes
 Type 1 diabetes is the less common type with no insulin
produced by the body.

 Type 2 diabetes is the more common type where fat cells

resist insulin.

 Prediabetes is blood glucose that is higher than normal

but below the diagnosis of diabetes.

 Hypoglycemia is low blood glucose and can often be

controlled by dietary changes.
Glucose in the Body
 The Constancy of Blood Glucose
 Glycemic response is how quickly the blood glucose rises
and elicits an insulin response.

 Glycemic index classifies foods according to their

potential for raising blood glucose.

 Glycemic load refers to a food’s glycemic index and

the amount of carbohydrate the food contains.

The benefit of the glycemic index is

controversial.
Glycemic Index
 is a ranking system for carbohydrates
based on their immediate effect on blood
glucose levels. It compares carbohydrates
gram for gram in individual foods,
providing a numerical, evidence-based
index of postprandial (post-meal)
glycemia.
The effect on blood glucose from a high versus
low glycemic index carbohydrate.
Glycemic Index of selected Foods
Glycemic Load
 The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for
carbohydrate content in food portions based on their
glycemic index (GI) and the portion size.
 The usefulness of glycemic load is based on the idea
that a high glycemic index food consumed in small
quantities would give the same effect as larger
quantities of a low glycemic index food on blood
sugar
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Sugars

 Sugar poses no major health problem except

dental caries.

 Excessive intakes may displace nutrients and

contribute to obesity.

 Consuming foods with added sugars should be

limited.

 Naturally occurring sugars from fruits, vegetables

and milk are acceptable sources.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Sugars

 Health Effects of Sugars

 Foods with added sugars have sugars listed as a first
ingredient.
 Nutrient deficiencies may develop from the intake of
empty kcalories.
 Just because a substance is natural does not mean
it is nutritious. (Example: honey)
 Dental caries may be caused by bacteria residing in
dental plaque and the length of time sugars have
contact with the teeth.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Sugars

 Controversies Surrounding Sugars

 Excessive sugar intake can contribute to the
development of body fat.
 Sugar may be able to alter blood lipid levels and
contribute to heart disease
 There is no scientific evidence that sugar causes
misbehavior in children and criminal behavior
in adults.
 There is a theory that sugar increases serotonin
levels, which can lead to cravings and
addictions.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Sugars

 Recommended Intakes of Sugars

 The USDA Food Guide states that added sugars
can be included in the diet as part of
discretionary kcalories.


 Dietary Guidelines state to limit intake of foods

and beverages that are high in added sugars.
 DRI suggest added sugars should contribute no
more than 25% of a day’s total energy intake.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
 Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
 May be some protection from heart disease and stroke
 Soluble fibers bind with bile and thereby lower blood
cholesterol levels.
 Fiber may also displace fat in the diet.

 Reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by decreasing glucose

absorption
 Enhance the health of the GI tract which can then block the
absorption of unwanted particles
 May protect against colon cancer by removing potential cancer-
causing agents from the body
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
 Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
 Promote weight control because complex
carbohydrates provide less fat and added sugar.

 Harmful effects of excessive fiber intake

 Displaces energy and nutrient-dense foods
 Abdominal discomfort and distention
 May interfere with nutrient absorption
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers

 RDA for carbohydrate is 50-100 g per day, or 45-

65% of energy intake.
 Daily Value is 300 grams per day.
 Dietary Guidelines encourage a variety of whole
grains, vegetables, fruits and legumes daily.
 Healthy People 2010 recommends six servings of
grains and five servings of fruits and vegetables.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
 Recommended Intakes of Fiber
 FDA recommends 25 grams for a 2,000-kcalorie diet.

 DRI at 14 g per 1000 kcalorie intake (28 grams for a 2,000

kcalorie diet)
 American Dietetic Association recommends 20-35 g per
day.
 World Health Organization suggests no more than 40 g
per day.
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
 From Guidelines to Groceries
 Grains – encourage whole grains
 Vegetables – starchy and nonstarchy vegetables differ in
carbohydrate content
 Fruits – vary in water, fiber and sugar content
 Milks and Milk Products – contain carbohydrate; cheese is low
 Meat and Meat Alternates – meats are low but nuts and
legumes have some carbohydrate
 Food labels list grams of carbohydrate, fiber and sugar; starch
grams can be calculated.
 Center Meals around the
Carbohydrate Foods
 Answers the question
“What am I supposed to eat”?
 Provides the best source of energy.
 Provides a lot of most nutrients, (including fiber)
 Low in fat, and has the ‘good’ type and contains no
cholesterol.
 Most have protein, certainly enough.
 Are not fattening--fats are!
FOOD SWEETENERS
 Nutritive sweeteners
 Sugars
 Sugar alcohols

 Alternative sweeteners
 Saccharin
 Aspartame
 Neotame
 Acesulfame-K
 Sucralose
Artificial Sweeteners
 Also called nonnutritive sweeteners
 Saccharin = Sweet n low
 Used primarily in soft drinks and as a tabletop sweetener
 Rapidly excreted in the urine
 Does not accumulate in the body
 Has been removed from list of cancer-causing substances
Artificial Sweeteners
 Aspartame = Equal
 General purpose sweetener
 Warning about phenylalanine for those with PKU
 Controversial finding that aspartame may have caused
cancer in rats
 Excessive intake should be avoided by those with
epilepsy
Artificial Sweeteners
 Acesulfame-K (acesulfame potassium) = The sweet one
 Research confirms safety
Artificial Sweeteners
 Sucralose = Splenda
 Made from sugar
 Passes through digestive tract
 Neotame
 Most recent on the market
 Very sweet
 Phenylalanine not an issue
Artificial Sweeteners
 Tagatose
 Used for foods and beverages
 Provides less kcalories than sugar
 High doses can cause flatulence and loose stools.
 Alitame and Cyclamate
 Pending FDA approval
 Approved in other countries
Artificial Sweeteners
 Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the level of
consumption, maintained every day and still safe by a
wide margin.
 Moderation and variety are still recommended.

 Artificial Sweeteners and Weight Control

 Much research still being done
 Using artificial sweeteners will not automatically reduce energy
intake.
Stevia – An Herbal Alternative
 Lacks research
 Classified as a dietary supplement
 Not required to have testing and FDA approval
Sugar Replacers
 Also called nutritive sweeteners, sugar alcohols,
and polyols
 Maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, and
lactitol
 Absorbed more slowly and metabolized
differently in the body
 Low glycemic response
 Side effects include GI discomfort