Radiation

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Definition of Radiation

 “Radiation is an energy in the form of

electro-magnetic waves or particulate
matter, traveling in the air.”

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Atomic Structure

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 Atoms
Atoms are composed of smaller particles
referred to as:

– Protons

– Neutrons

– Electrons

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Atoms are the smallest structural units of all solids, liquids &
gases.

Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical

properties of the element. Atoms can exist alone or in
combinations with other atoms forming molecules.

it consists of two components: a nucleus surrounded by

an electron cloud.

the nucleus is said to be positively

charged and the electrons negatively charged.

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Draw a Diagram of an Atom

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 The Nucleus

composed of

 Proton (+)
 Neutron (#)
The mass of a proton is roughly equal to the mass of a neutron and each
of these is about 2,000 times the mass of an electron

An atom all on its own is electrically neutral.

The number of protons in the nucleus of such an

atom must therefore equal the number of electrons
orbiting that atom.

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 Classification of Nuclei

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

MASS NUMBER (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
ISOTOPS are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons
in the nucleus

Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z X Element Symbol

1 2 3
1 H 1 H (D) 1 H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U
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Draw a diagram showing the location of each part of the
atom.

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 Basic Model of a Neutral Atom.

 Electrons (-) orbiting nucleus of protons (+)

and neutrons. Same number of electrons as
protons; net charge = 0.
 Atomic number (number of protons)
determines element.
 Mass number (protons + neutrons)

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 The beginnings of Radiology
November 1895 - Roentgen discovered X-rays

 when experimenting with cathode ray

tubes in a darkened room, he noticed a
faint fluorescent glow emanating from a
plate he had left on the bench
 when he moved to pick it up, he was
amazed to see the image of the bones
from his hand cast onto the plates
 the prospects for x-ray diagnosis were
immediately recognised but Roentgen
refused to patent his discovery
 Won first Nobel Prize in Physics for his
discovery - 1901

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 X-Rays

X-Rays: Occur whenever an inner shell orbital

electron is removed and rearrangement of the
atomic electrons results with the release of the
elements characteristic X-Ray energy

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 Production of X-Rays
 X-rays are produced by the conversion of the kinetic energy
(KE) of electrons into electromagnetic (EM) radiation.

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 Bremsstrahlung
 A large potential difference is applied across the two electrodes
in an evacuated (usually glass) envelope.
-
 Negatively charged cathode is the source of electrons (e ).

 Positively charged anode is the target of electrons.

 Electrons released from the cathode are accelerated towards

the anode by the electrical potential difference and attain kinetic
energy.

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 Bremsstrahlung
 This radiation is termed bremsstrahlung, a German word
meaning “braking radiation”.
 The impact parameter distance, the closest approach to
the nucleus by the e- determines the amount of KE loss.
 The Coulomb force of attraction varies strongly with
2
distance ( 1/r ); as the distance ↓, deceleration and KE
loss ↑.
 A direct impact of an electron with the target nucleus (the
rarest event) results in loss of all of the electron’s kinetic
energy and produces the highest energy x-ray.

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Bremsstrahlung
Creates a
polychromatic
spectrum

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 Characteristic Spectrum
 Each electron in the target
atom has a binding energy
(BE) that depends on the shell
in which it resides
 K shell – highest BE, L shell
next highest BE and so on
 When the energy of an
electron incident on the target
exceeds the binding energy of
an electron of a target atom, it
is energetically possible for a
collisional interaction to eject Characteristic x-ray:
the electron and ionize the from L → K e- transition
atom

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 Characteristic Spectrum
 The unfilled shell is
energetically unstable, and
an outer shell electron with
less binding energy will fill
the vacancy.
 As this electron transitions to
a lower energy state, the
excess energy can be
released as a characteristic
x-ray photon with an energy
equal to the difference
between the binding Characteristic x-ray:
energies of the electron from L → K e- transition

shells.

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 Characteristic Spectrum

 Binding energies are unique to a given element. The emitted x-

rays have discrete energies that are characteristic of that
element.
 The target materials used in x-ray tubes for diagnostic medical
imaging include Tungsten, Mlybdenum and Rodium.
 As the E of the incident e- increases above the threshold E for
characteristic x-ray production, the % of char. x-rays increases
(5% at 80 kVp versus 10% at 100 kVp).

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What they are:
 Short wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation (2x10-12 to 1x10-8 m)

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X-Rays properities
•Like visible light but
shorter wavelength (higher frequency)

•Uncharged

•Reflected and refracted like light

•Affect photographic film

•Heavier elements like Ca absorb x-rays

better than O, N. so bone absorbs x-rays
better than muscle and air.
•Produce fluorescence in some materials

•Produce ionisation in materials

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 Types of Radiation

 Radiation is classified into:

◦ Ionizing radiation
◦ Non-ionizing radiation

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Ionizing Versus Non-ionizing
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
– Higher energy electromagnetic waves
(gamma) or heavy particles (beta and alpha).
– High enough energy to pull electron from orbit.

Non-ionizing Radiation
– Lower energy electromagnetic waves.
– Not enough energy to pull electron from orbit,
but can excite the electron.

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Ionizing Radiation
 Definition:
“ It is a type of radiation that is able to disrupt
atoms and molecules on which they pass
through, giving rise to ions and free radicals”.

They are electromagnetic waves incapable of

producing ions while passing through
matter, due to their lower energy.”

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 Another Definition
Ionizing radiation
A radiation is said to be ionizing when it has enough
energy to eject one or more electrons from the atoms or
molecules in the irradiated medium.
This is the case of electromagnetic radiations such as
gamma radiations, X-rays and some ultra-violet rays.
Visible or infrared light are not, nor are microwaves or
radio waves.

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Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation

Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays (or photons)
X-Rays (or photons)
Neutrons

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Object

What can happen to an X-ray when it encounters the

object to be imaged?

Passes right through the object.

Absorbed completely by the object.
Scattered by the object

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 Medical Imaging modalities
Projection X-ray (Radiography)

X-ray CT – (X-ray computed tomography) uses ionising

radiation, source is external to the body.In some cases,
contrast agents are injected. Anatomical images

MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) – uses magnetic fields

and radiofrequency pulses to produce anatomical
images. In some cases, contrast agents are injected.
Also, fMRI
US (Ultrasound imaging) – uses high frequency sound
waves and the pulse echo effect (which is the basis of
radar) to give anatomical information.
Nuclear medicine imaging – uses unsealed radioactivity
to produce functional images

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