The Chemistry of

Engineering Materials
SUBATOMIC NATURE OF MATTER
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Matter is made up of atoms, molecules or ions.

◦An atom is the simplest unit of matter which may be
subdivided into protons (positively charged particle),
electrons (negatively charged particle) and neutrons
(neutral particle).
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦The mass of an atom is the attributed to the number of

protons and neutrons and is concentrated on the central
part of the atom referred to as the nucleus. Collectively
the protons and neutrons are called neutrons because
they are located in the nucleus. Electrons on the other
hand have negligible mass and orbits around the nucleus.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Molecules are two or more atoms bonded together

forming covalent or molecular compounds.
◦Ions are particles with electrostatic charges
obtained by either loss of electrons or gain of
electrons. Positively charged ions are referred to as
cations and negatively charged ions are referred to
as anions.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Cations originates from metal atoms which donates their

valence(outermost) electrons to gain stability in structure,
i.e. Na+, Ca+2, Al+3. Anions are formed when nonmetals
accepts electrons to gain stability, i.e. N-3,O-2, F-. Cations
and anions form ionic compounds.
 Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Cations originates from metal atoms which donates their

valence(outermost) electrons to gain stability in structure,
i.e. Na+, Ca+2, Al+3. Anions are formed when nonmetals
accepts electrons to gain stability, i.e. N-3,O-2, F-. Cations
and anions form ionic compounds.
Formation of Cations

◦There are energy changes in the formation of ions, as

represented by ionization energies and electron affinities.

◦Ionization energy- amount of energy needed to remove an

electron and form a cation.
◦Electron affinity – amount of energy required to add an
electron and form an anion.
Formation of Cations
A metal reacts with a nonmetal to form an ionic bond. You can often determine the
charge an ion normally has by the element’s position on the periodic table:
The alkali metals (the IA elements) lose a single electron to form a cation with a 1+
charge.
The alkaline earth metals (IIA elements) lose two electrons to form a 2+ cation.
Aluminum, a member of the IIIA family, loses three electrons to form a 3+ cation.
The halogens (VIIA elements) all have seven valence electrons. All the halogens gain a
single electron to fill their valence energy level. And all of them form an anion with a
single negative charge.
The VIA elements gain two electrons to form anions with a 2- charge.
The VA elements gain three electrons to form anions with a 3- charge.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged

species (positive and negative) results in a force that
causes them to move toward each other, like the attraction
between opposite poles of two magnets. In contrast,
electrostatic repulsion between two species with the same
charge (either both positive or both negative) results in a
force that causes them to repel each other, as do the same
poles of two magnets.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Atoms form chemical compounds when the attractive

electrostatic interactions between them are stronger than
the repulsive interactions. Collectively, we refer to the
attractive interactions between atoms as chemical bonds.
 Different Ways of Representing the Structure of a Molecule

(a) The molecular formula for methanol gives only the number of each kind of atom present.
(b) The structural formula shows which atoms are connected. (c) The ball-and-stick model
shows the atoms as spheres and the bonds as sticks. (d) A perspective drawing (also called a
wedge-and-dash representation) attempts to show the three dimensional structure of the
molecule. (e) The space-filling model shows the atoms in the molecule but not the bonds. (f)
The condensed structural formula is by far the easiest and most common way to represent a
molecule.
EXAMPLES
Write the molecular formula for each compound. The condensed structural formula is
given.
a. Sulfur monochloride (also called disulfur dichloride) is a vile-smelling, corrosive yellow
liquid used in the production of synthetic rubber. Its condensed structural formula is
ClSSCl.
b. Ethylene glycol is the major ingredient in antifreeze. Its condensed structural formula is
HOCH2CH2OH.
c. Trimethylamine is one of the substances responsible for the smell of spoiled fish. Its
condensed structural formula is (CH3)3N.

A. S2Cl2
B. C2H6O2
C. C3H9N
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Atoms combined using chemical bonding to achieve

stability. – formulated by one of the greatest American
chemists, Gilbert Lewis
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Chemical bonds are generally divided into two

fundamentally different kinds: ionic and covalent.

◦The intramolecular chemical bond of a compound may be;

ionic, covalent or molecular or metallic.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Ionic bond is formed when there is a transfer of electrons

from cations to anions, i.e. NaCl. Covalent or molecular
bond is formed when there is sharing of electrons between
non-metals, i.e. H2O. Metallic bond is formed between
metals, whose atoms are ionized forming an electron sea
which binds the charged nuclei in place.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

In molecular hydrogen (H2),

two hydrogen atoms share two
electrons to form a covalent
bond.
Subatomic Nature of Matter
The ionic
compound NaCl forms
when electrons from
sodium atoms are
transferred to chlorine
atoms. The resulting
Na+ and
Cl− ions form a three-
dimensional solid that is
held together by
attractive electrostatic
interactions.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Ionic compounds consist of positively and negatively

charged ions held together by strong electrostatic forces,
whereas covalent compounds generally consist of
molecules, which are groups of atoms in which one or
more pairs of electrons are shared between bonded
atoms.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

◦Despite the differences in the distribution of electrons

between these two idealized types of bonding, all models of
chemical bonding have three features in common:

1. Atoms interact with one another to form aggregates such as

molecules, compounds, and crystals because doing so lowers
the total energy of the system; that is, the aggregates are more
stable than the isolated atoms.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

2. Energy is required to dissociate bonded atoms or ions into

isolated atoms or ions. For ionic solids, in which the ions form a
three-dimensional array called a lattice, this energy is called the
lattice energy (U), the enthalpy change that occurs when a solid
ionic compound is transformed into gaseous ions. For covalent
compounds, this energy is called the bond energy, which is the
enthalpy change that occurs when a given bond in a gaseous
molecule is broken.
Subatomic Nature of Matter

3. Each chemical bond is characterized by a particular optimal

internuclear distance called the bond distance(r0).
 Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
Ionic compounds usually form hard crystalline solids that melt at
rather high temperatures and are very resistant to evaporation.

In contrast, most covalent compounds consist of discrete

molecules held together by comparatively weak intermolecular
forces (the forces between molecules), even though the atoms
within each molecule are held together by strong intramolecular
covalent bonds (the forces within the molecule).
Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds

The positively and negatively charged

ions in an ionic solid such as sodium
chloride (NaCl) are held together by
strong electrostatic interactions.
Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
In this representation of the packing of
methane (CH4) molecules in solid
methane, a prototypical molecular
solid, the methane molecules are held
together in the solid only by relatively
weak intermolecular forces, even
though the atoms within each methane
molecule are held together by strong
covalent bonds.
Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
Compounds that contain predominantly carbon and hydrogen are
called organic compounds, whereas compounds that consist primarily
of elements other than carbon and hydrogen are inorganic
compounds.

Diatomic molecules contain two atoms, and polyatomic molecules

contain more than two.
Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
Single bonds, double bonds, and triple bonds are covalent bonds in
which one, two, and three pairs of electrons, respectively, are shared
between two bonded atoms.
Hydrogen (H2) has a single bond between
atoms. Oxygen (O2) has a double bond
between atoms, indicated by two
lines (=). Nitrogen (N2) has a triple bond
between atoms, indicated by three lines
(≡). Each bond represents an electron
pair.