HUMAN GROWTH, LEARNING

AND DEVELOPMENT

Dr. Mercedes G. Sanchez

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

 There is a set of principles that characterizes the

pattern and process of growth and development.
 These principles or characteristics describe
typical development as a predictable and orderly
process; that is, we can predict how most children
will develop and that they will develop at the
same rate and at the same time as other
children.
 Although there are individual differences in
children’s personalities, activity levels, and
timing of developmental milestones, such as ages
and stages, the principles and characteristics of
development are universal patterns.
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Part 1
1. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM
THE HEAD DOWNWARD.

 This is called the cephalocaudal principle.

 The principle describes the direction of growth
and development
 According to this principle, the child gains control
of the head first, then arms, and then legs.
 Infants develop control of head to face
movements within the first two months after
birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift
themselves up by using their arms. By 6 to 12
months of age, infants stars to gain leg control
and may be able to crawl, stand or walk.
Coordination of arms always precedes
coordination of legs.
2. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS
FROM THE CENTER OF THE BODY
OUTWARD.

 This is the principle of proximal

development that also describes the
direction of development.
 This means that the spinal cord develops
before outer parts of the body.
 The child’s arms develop before fingers
and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in
fine motor dexterity) are the last to
develop in physical development.
3. DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS ON
MATURATION AND LEARNING
 Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological
growth and development. The biological changes occur in
sequential order and give children new abilities.
 Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for
maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system can
help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor
(physical) skills.
 Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically
programmed. The child’s experiences largely determine whether
the child will reach optimal development.
 A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child
to develop to his or her potential.
 Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can
progress to new skills (Readiness)
 For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the
infant’s brain has developed further and with help from others,
the child will have the capacity to say and understand words.
Also, a child can’t write or draw until he has developed the
motor control to hold a pencil or crayon.
4. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS
FROM THE SIMPLE (CONCRETE) TO
THE MORE COMPLEX.
 Children use their cognitive and language skills
to reason and solve problems.
 For example, learning relationship between
things (how things are similar), or classification,
is an important ability in cognitive development.
 The cognitive process of learning how an apple
and orange are alike begins with the most
simplistic or concrete thought of describing the
two. Seeing no relationship, a preschool child will
describe the objects according to some property of
the object, such as color. Such a response would
be, “An apple is red (or green) and an orange is
orange.”
 The first level o thinking about how object are
alike is to give a description or functional
relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the
two objects:
 “An apple and orange are round” and
 “An apple and orange are alike because you
eat them” are typical responses of three, four
and five year olds.
 As children develop further in cognitive skills,
they are able to understand a higher and more
complex relationship between objects and things;
that is,
 “An apple and orange exist in a class called
fruit.” The child cognitively is then capable of
classification
5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IS A
CONTINUOUS PROCESS.
 As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already
acquired and the new skills become the basis for further
achievement and mastery of skills.
 Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of
development lays the foundation for the next stage of
development.
 For example, in motor development, there is a predictable
sequence of developments that occur before walking. The
infant lifts and turns the head before he or she can turn
over.
 Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before
grasping an object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves
increasing skills from holding on to walking alone. By the
age of four, most children can walk up and down stairs with
alternating feet. As in maturation, in order for children to
write or draw, they must have developed the manual (hand)
control to hold a pencil and crayon.
6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
PROCEED FROM GENERAL TO
SPECIFIC.

 In motor development, the infant will be able to

grasp an object with the whole hand before using
only the thumb and forefinger.
 Infant’s first motor movements are very
generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving
arms or kicking before being able to reach or
creep toward an object. Growth occurs from large
muscle movements to more refined (smaller)
muscle movements.
7. THERE ARE INDIVIDUAL RATES
OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

 Each child is different and the rates at which individual

children grow is different at which individual children grow
is different.
 Although the patterns are sequences for growth and
development are usually the same for all children, the rates
at which individual children reach developmental stages
will be different.
 Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of
development should cause us to be careful about using and
relying on age and stage characteristics to be describe or
label children.
 There is a range of ages for any developmental task to take
place.
 This dismisses the notion of the “average child”.
 Some children will walk at ten months while others
walk a few months older at eighteen months of age.
 Some children are more active while others are more
passive.
 This does not mean that the passive child will be less
intelligent as an adult. There no validity to comparing
one child’s progress with or against another child.
 Rates of development also are not uniform within an
individual child.
 For example, a child’s intellectual development may
progress faster than his emotional or social
development.
 An understanding of principles of development help us
to plan appropriate activities and stimulating and
enriching experiences for children, and provides a
basis for understanding how to encourage and support
young children’s learning.
CONCEPTS IN HUMAN GROWTH,
LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Part 2
 1
Study of growth
through learning
and development
can help us to know
a child more
systematically and
thereby allowing us
to be better
mentors.
As teachers, we are

2
able to observe the
student at various
cross sectional stages
of life that enables us
to develop methods
to assist them in
understanding the
world, as well as
giving us the means
to reach their mind.
Knowing more about

3
growth through
learning and
development will
help you to generate
questions when
talking end
educating students
that will deepen our
knowledge of them
 4
Socialization and
our perception of
acceptance do have
extreme impacts on
our sense of self
that really does
determine our
development and
growth.
Two general factors

5
that influence human
development and
heredity and
environment. The
interaction between an
individual’s inherited
potentialities and
environmental
influences determine
the level of various
stages of his life.
No two individuals can

6
be exactly alike their
resulting development
and adjustments. In
view of individual
differences, the
problem of meeting
adequately the
individual needs of
school learners
becomes an important
concern of teachers.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES

Part 3
 PSYCHOANALITIC CHILD
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
BY SIGMUND FREUD
 The theory proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the
importance of childhood events and experiences, but
almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather
than normal functioning.
 According to Freud, child’s development is described as
a series of ‘psychosexual stages.’ In “Three Essays on
Sexuality” (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral,
anal, phallic, latency and genital.
 Each stage involves the satisfaction of libidinal desire
and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child
does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested
that he or she would develop a fixation that later
influence adult personality and behavior.
Stage Age Characteristics
Oral Birth to 1 An infant’s primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for
Stage year eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities
such as tasting and sucking. If this need is not met, the child may develop oral fixation later
in life, examples of which include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and
overeating.

Anal 1 to 3 Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was controlling bladder and bowel
Stage years movements. Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Too much pressure
can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure
from parents can lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life.

Phallic 3 to 6 Freud suggested that the primary focus on the id’s energy is on the genitals. According to
Stage years Freud, boy’s experience Oedipal Complex and girl’s experience and Electra Complex, or an
attraction to the opposite sex parent. To cope with this conflict, children adopt the values
and characteristics of the same-sex parent, thus forming the superego.

Latent 6 to During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id’s energies are suppressed.
Stage 11years Children develop social skills, values, relationships with peers and adult outside of the
family.

Genital 11 to 18 The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During this stage,
Stage years people develop a strong interest in the opposite. If development has been successful to this
point, the individual will continue to develop into a well-balance person.
ERIK ERIKSON
 Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a stage
theory of development, but his theory of
development, but his theory encompassed human
growth throughout the entire human lifespan.
 Erikson believed that each stage of development
was focused on overcoming a conflict. For
example, the primary conflict during the
adolescent period involves establishing a sense of
personal identity.
 Success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at
each stage can impact overall functioning.
 During the adolescent stage, for example, failure
to develop an identity results in role confusion.
 Stage Basic conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
(birth to 18 months) reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this may lead to
mistrust.
Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
(2 to 3 years) Doubt physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to
feeling autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt.
Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
(3 to 5 years) environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

School Age Industry vs. Inferiority School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
(6 to 11 years) Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence Identity vs. Role Social Relationships Teens need to develop a sense of self personal identity.
(12 to 18 years) Confusion Success leads to an ability to say true to yourself, while failure
leads to role confusion and weak sense of self.

Young adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
(19 to 40 years) other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while
failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Middle Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,
(40-65 years) often by having children or creating a positive change that
benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishments, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.

Maturity Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
(65 to death) fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feeling of wisdom,
while failures results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
COGNITIVE CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

 Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children

think differently than adults and proposed a
stage theory of cognitive development.
 He was the first to note that children play an
active role in gaining knowledge of the world.
 According to his theory, children can be
thought of as “little scientists” who actively
construct their knowledge and understanding
of the world.
PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Stage Description Age Range
Sensorimotor An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual Birth to 2 years
action at birth to the beginning of symbolic
thought. The infant constructs an understanding of
the world by coordinating sensory experiences
with physical actions.
Preoperational The child begins to represent the world with 2 to 7 years
words and images; these words and images reflect
increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the
connection of sensory information and physical
action.
Concrete The child can now reason logically about concrete 7 to 11 years
Operational events and classify objects into different sets.

Formal The adolescent reasons in more abstract and 11 to 15 years

Operational logical ways. Thought is more idealistic.
BEHAVIORAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES

 Behavioral theories of child development focus on how

environmental interaction influences behavior and
are based upon the theories of theorists such as John
B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner.
 These theories deal only with observable behaviors.
 Development is considered a reaction to reward s,
punishments, stimuli and reinforcement.
 This theory differs considerably from other child
development theories because it gives no
consideration to internal thoughts or feeling.
 Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes
who we are.
SOCIAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES BY
JOHN BOWLBY

 John Bowlby proposed one of the

earliest theories of social
development.
 Bowlby believed that early
relationships with caregivers play a
major role in child development and
continue to influence social
relationships throughout life.
ALBERT BANDURA

 Psychologists Albert Bandura proposed what is

known as Social Learning Theory
 According to this theory of child development,
children learn new behaviors from observing other
people.
 Unlike behavioral theories, Bandura believed that
external reinforcement was not only that people
learned new things.
 Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of
pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could also
lead to learning.
 By observing the actions of others, including parents
and peers, children develop new skills and aquire new
information.
LEV VYGOTSKY

 Another psychologists named Vygotsky proposed

a seminal learning theory that has gone on to
become influential, especially in the field if
education.
 Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children
learn actively and through hands-on experience.
His Sociocultural Theory also suggested that
parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at
large were responsible for the development of
higher order functions.
THE LEARNING PROCESS
Part 4
THE NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

 Formal education is based on the premise that

the learning process can be directed and
facilitated.
 Such direction and facilitation of learning is not a
simple task. Unless a teacher has a clear
knowledge and understanding of this process, he
will find it difficult to set the conditions that will
facilitate learning success on the part of the
learners.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNING

 The value of learning in any society it it’s

a role in the transmission of knowledge
and maintenance of society’s norms and
values.
 It is the avenue by which individuals
learn basic skills, attitudes and
competencies.
 It endows the capacity to achieve goals
and lifestyles, or even the capacity to
survive.
TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Psycho-motor Learning
 Learning which involves the use of the senses
and muscles.
2. Cognitive Learning
 Learning which involves intellectual activities
ranging from simple to associations between
stimuli and responses to complex insights as in
problem solving.
3. Affective Learning
 Involve acquisition of attitudes, ideas, judgments
and knowledge concerning values.
PRINCIPLES THAT FACILITATE
CLASSROOM LEARNING
 The learner must clearly perceive the goal.
 The learner must be psychologically and physiologically ready.
 The learner must be motivated to learn.
 The learner must be active, not passive for maximum learning.
 The learner must focus his attention on the learning task.
 The learner must put together parts of the task and perceive it as
a meaningful whole.
 The learner must be prepared to respond.
 The learner must see the significance, meaning, implications and
application that will make a given experience understandable.
 The learner must repeat or practice what he has learned in order
to remember.
 The learner must interpret and reorganize his behavior when he is
thwarted or does not attain his goals.
LEARNING SITUATIONS

Part 5
LEARNING SITUATIONS

An important aspect of the

educative process is the
learning situation. The
learning situation refers to
conditions outside the learner
which affect his learning.
TEACHER’S ROLE

 Considered as the key factor in student learning, the

teacher assumes various significant roles in the
classroom.
 He serves as a role model to his students in desirable
patterns of behavior and values.
 As manager of the classroom situation, he determines
the kind of psycho-social climate that will prevail in
the classroom.
 As a facilitator of student learning, he utilizes
appropriate and effective teaching methods
depending on the learning situation that he
encounters.
 As evaluator of students learning he utilizes results of
evaluation as basis further learning of his students.
ASPECTS OF TEACHING FUNCTION

 Two aspect of the teaching function that needs

attention are motivation and communication.
 Studies have shown that the proper application
of principles of motivation and the type of
communicative relationship establish between
teacher and students make for effective learning.
 Effective learning is also facilitated by feedback.
For this reason, the systematic evaluation of
student learning becomes an integral part of the
teaching-learning process.
EVALUATION OF LEARNING

 Based on recent literature, there are two ways of

measuring student achievement:
 Criterion- referenced Measurement.

 Grades are based on the preset standards and

goal for each learner is mastery. This type of
measurement is said to encourage cooperative
learning among students.
 Norm- referenced Measurement.

 Grading is based on relative achievement within

the group, thus, ranking and comparing student
performance is encourage.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR TEST
CONSTRUCTION

 Using several kinds of test items.

 A test should be measure the objectives of a course or
subject, and should cover most of the content taken in
class.
 The test should be reliable such that it measures the
objective in intended to measure.
 Test items should be clear and unambiguous, leaving
no room for misunderstanding.
 The test is difficult enough for the poorly prepared
well for it. Hence, the level of the difficulty should be
carefully evaluated.
 Teachers should be carefully evaluated.
 Teachers should take time to prepare tests. There is a
need to review, revise, and reexamine test items
before finalizing these.
THANK
YOU!