Solid-State Welding

Process
Module IV
Solid state welding:-Electrical(resistance) welding-
Spot, seam, projection, Upset butt, Flash butt, Percussion
welding, their advantages, limitations and applications.
Welding of tubes.
Solid state welding- chemical: -
Diffusion bonding, Explosion welding.
Solid state welding- mechanical:
Cold welding, Ultrasonic welding, Friction welding, Forge
welding. Friction stir welding processes
Under water welding process.
Shielding Gases for Welding:- Basic Properties of a
Shielding Gas, Characteristics of the Components of a
Shielding Gas Blend, Shielding Gas Selection, Influence of
Shielding Gas on Weld Mechanical Properties, Shielding
Gas and Fume Generation,
Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
 Definition of Resistance
Welding
 Resistance welding is a fusion welding process in
which coalescence of metals is produced at the
faying surfaces by the heat generated at the joint
by the resistance of the work to the flow of
electricity.
 Force is applied before, during, and after the
application of current to prevent arcing at the
work piece.
 Melting occurs at the faying surfaces during
welding.
Principal Types of Resistance Welds
Electrodes Electrodes Electrodes Projection
or Welding or Welding or Dies Welds
Tips Wheels

Spot Weld Seam Weld Projection Weld

Electrodes or Dies

Upset Weld Flash Weld

After Welding After Welding

[Reference: Resistance Welding Manual, RWMA, p.1-3]

 Spot, seam, and projection welding operations
involve a coordinated application of electric
current and mechanical pressure of the proper
magnitudes and durations.
 The welding current must pass from the
electrodes through the work. Its continuity is
assured by forces applied to the electrodes, or
by projections which are shaped to provide the
necessary current density and pressure.
 The sequence of operation must first develop
sufficient heat to raise a confined volume of
metal to the molten state.
 This metal is then allowed to cool while under
pressure until it has adequate strength to hold
the parts together. required to develop the
necessary welding heat.
 The current density and pressure must be
such that a nugget is formed, but not so high
that molten metal is expelled from the weld
zone.
 The duration of weld current must be
sufficiently short to prevent excessive heating
of the electrode faces. Such heating may
bond the electrodes to the work and greatly
reduce their life.
 The heat required for these resistance
welding processes is produced by the
resistance of the workpiece to an electric
current passing through the material. Due to
the short electric current path in the work and
limited weld time, relatively high welding
currents are required to develop the
necessary welding heat
 Hence Resistance welding depends on three
factors:
 Time of current flow (T).
 Resistance of the conductor (R)
 Amperage (I).
Heat = I2 RTK
Where
Is a function of:
I = Current (Amps) Transformer Tap Setting
R = Resistance (Ohms) Material Prop., & Pressure
T = Time (Cycles 1/60 Control Setting
Second)
K = Heat Losses Conduction, Convection,
Radiation
 Block Diagram of Single-Phase Spot
Welder

Contactor

Main Power Line

Spot Weld
 The electrical power system of a single-phase spot welder
can be thought of simply as a contactor and a transformer
whose secondary current is used to make a weld as shown
in the above slide. The contactor shown in this figure is
used simply to initiate and terminate the welding current.
The transformer is a device which, through an inductive
coupling, can change one AC voltage to another. A
transformer consists of three elements:
 Primary windings - A series of windings in the
transformer which convert an alternating current into a
magnetic flux.
 Secondary windings - These windings receive the
magnetic flux generated by the primary windings and
convert it back into a usable AC current.
 Core - A piece of iron used to carry the magnetic flux from
the primary to the secondary windings. Spot welding
transformers use one of two types of cores: stacked and
wound (or “Hypersil”), as shown in the next slide.
 Factors Affecting Heat Generation (Q):
 Welding pressure
– as welding pressure increases both R and Q
decrease.
 Electrodes
– deformation of electrodes increases contact
area. As contact area increases, both R and
Q decrease.
 Heat Dissipation
Water-Cooled Copper Alloy Electrode

Base Metal
Weld Nugget
Base Metal

Water-Cooled Copper Alloy Electrode

 During welding, heat is lost by conduction into the
adjacent base metal and the electrodes. This heat
dissipation continues at varying rates during current
application and afterward, until the weld has cooled
to room temperature.
 It may be divided into two phases: (1) during the time
of current application, and (2) after the cessation of
current.
 The extent of the first phase depends upon the
composition and mass of the workpieces, the welding
time, and the external cooling means. External
cooling depends upon the welding setup and the
welding cycle. cooling rates will be slower than thin
sheets and short weld time.
 The heat generated by a given amperage is inversely
proportional to the electrical conductivity of the base
metal. The thermal conductivity and temperature of
the base metal determine the rate at which heat is
dissipated or conducted from the weld zone.
 In a high-conductivity metal, such as copper or silver,
high amperage is needed to produce a weld and
compensate for the heat that is dissipated rapidly into
the adjacent base metal and the electrodes.
 Spot, seam, and projection welding of these metals is
very difficult.
 Surface Condition
(a) Pickled Conditions
Steel

Steel

Resistivity
(b) Rusted Conditions
Steel Rusty
Oils/Dirt Polished
Oxide
Pickled

Oxide Electrode Force

Oils/Dirt

Steel
 Contact resistances are considerably higher than
bulk resistances. Contact resistances are high
because the surface are irregular. As such, much less
conducting area is available and the contact
resistance increases accordingly.
 Figure (b) details the effect of rusted or dirty sheet
surfaces. In this case, in addition to limited sheet-to-
sheet contact, the surfaces are covered with a high
resistivity film consisting of oxides or dirt. The
effect is a further increased contact resistance. The
magnitudes of the contact resistances for the surface
conditions described are shown in the above slide.
 Resistance Varies with Pressure

Low Pressure Medium Pressure High Pressure

(a) (b) (c)

 Advantages of Resistance Spot Welding
 Adaptability for Automation in High-Rate Production of
Sheet Metal Assemblies
 High Speed
 Economical
 Dimensional Accuracy

Limitations of Resistance Spot Welding

 Difficulty for maintenance or repair
 Adds weight and material cost to the product, compared
with a butt joint
 Generally have higher cost than most arc welding
equipment
 Produces unfavorable line power demands
 Low tensile and fatigue strength
 The full strength of the sheet cannot prevail across a
spot welded joint
 Eccentric loading condition
Seam Welding
 Resistance seam welding is another variation on
resistance spot welding. In this case, the welding
electrodes are motor driven wheels rather than
stationary caps. This results in a “rolling” resistance
weld or seam weld.
 There are three independent parameters in
configuring seam welding machines: power supplies
and control, welding wheel configuration and sheet
configuration.
 The major concern with power supplies and control
is the frequency with which current is applied to the
workpiece. Depending on this frequency and the
speed with which the material is being welded, the
weld will be either a continuous seam weld, an
overlapping seam weld or a roll spot weld.
 Seam welds are typically used to produce continuous
gas- or liquid-tight joints in sheet assemblies, such as
automotive gasoline tanks. The process is also used
to weld longitudinal seams in structural tubular
sections that do not require leak-tight seams.
 In most applications, two wheel electrodes, or one
translating wheel and a stationary mandrel, are used
to provide the current and pressure for resistance
seam welding.
 Seam welds can also be produced using spot welding
electrodes. This requires the purposeful overlapping
of the spot welds in order to obtain a leak-tight seam
weld.
 Overlapping spot welding requires an increase in
power after the first spot weld to offset the shunting
effect in order to obtain adequate nugget formation as
welding progresses.
 Introduction to Resistance Seam Welding

Roll Spot Weld

Upper Electrode Wheel

Knurl or Friction Overlapping Seam

Drive Wheel Weld

Continuous Seam
Weld

Workpiece
Throat

Lower Electrode Wheel [Reference: Welding Handbook,

Volume 2, p.553, AWS]
Mash seam welding is a resistance welding variation that
makes a lap joint primarily by high-temperature plastic
forming and diffusion, as opposed to melting and
solidification. The joint thickness after welding is less than
the original assembled thickness.
.

Slightly Lapped
Sheets Wide, Flat
Electrodes

Weld Nuggets
Before welding After Welding
 Mash seam welding requires considerably less overlap
than the conventional lap joint.
 The overlap is about 1 to 1.5 times the sheet
thickness with proper welding procedures. Wide, flat-
faced wheel electrodes, which completely cover the
overlap, are used.
 In order to obtain consistent welding characteristics,
mash seam welding requires high electrode force,
continuous welding current, and accurate control of
force, current, welding speed, overlap, and joint
thickness.
 Overlap is maintained at close tolerances, by rigidly
clamping or tack welding the pieces
Projection Welding
 Resistance projection welding is a variation on resistance
spot welding. Basically, a protrusion is placed on one of
the two materials to be welded. This projection is then
brought into contact against the second material.
 The welding sequence is similar to that for resistance
spot welding. The welding electrodes are used to apply
both force and current across the configuration.
 The point of contact acts to constrict current flow (and is
a point of high resistance in the welding circuit), and
heating occurs preferentially at this point.
 As the material heats it becomes soft, and the projection
collapses under the force applied by the welding
electrodes.
 Due to the amount of plastic flow involved, melting is
not always necessary to form a sound joint.
 Projection welding is not limited to sheets. Any joint
whose contact area is small compared to the thickness of
the parts being welded is a candidate for projection
welding.
 The sequence of events during the formation of a
projection weld is shown in the above slide.
 In Figure (a), the projection is shown in contact with the
mating sheet. In Figure (b), the current has started to
heat the projection to welding temperature.
 The electrode force causes the heated projection to
collapse rapidly and then fusion takes place as shown in
Figure (c). The completed weld is shown in Figure (d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

 The means of producing projections depends upon the
material in which they are to be produced. Projections
in sheet metal parts are generally made by embossing,
as opposed to projections formed in solid metal pieces
which are made by either machining or forging. In the
case of stamped parts, projections are generally located
on the edge of the stamping.
 The purpose of a projection is to localized the heat and
pressure at a specific location on the joint. The
projection design determines the currency density.
Various types of projection designs are shown in the
above and the following slides.
 Considerations for Various Materials
• Mild and HSLA Steels:
– Both are considered readily projection weldable.
– Both can adequately retain projection welding shape until adequate
heating has occurred and are weldable using either embossed or solid
projections.
– The HSLA steels may, depending on the particular composition, suffer an
array of metallurgical problems.

• Galvanized Steels:
– Projection welding can offer some major advantages in resistance
welding galvanized steel.
– The relatively low contact resistance is a major concern.
– The use of a projection can put contact resistance back into the welding
circuit directly at the faying surface. This, in turn, results in lower
welding currents and possibly better electrode-life characteristics as
compared to resistance spot welding.
 Advantages of Projection Welding
 Ease of obtaining satisfactory heat balance for welding
difficult combinations
 More uniform results in many applications
 Increased output per machine because several welds
are being made simultaneously
 Longer electrode lifeWelds may be placed more closely
together
 Parts are more easily welded in an assembly fixture
 Finish, or surface appearance, is often improved
 Parts may be projection welded that could not be
otherwise resistance welded
 Limitations of Projection Welding

 Requires an additional operation to form projections

 Requires accurate control of projection height and
precise alignment of the welding dies with multiple
welds
 Requires thickness limitation for sheet metals
 Requires higher capacity equipment than spot welding
 Considerations for Various Materials
• Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys:
– They are considered not projection weldable.
– Most aluminum alloys are of too low a strength to allow the projection
to survive under the necessary welding forces.
– The oxide formed appears to prevent the solid-state bond necessary to
form the type of joint.

• High Alloy Steels:

– Projection welding is also quite readily applicable to the higher alloy
steels.
– The major concern here is material hardenability. Adequate precautions
must be taken to prevent the development of brittle microstructures.
• Copper Alloys:
– Projection welding has definite implied advantages for resistance
welding copper and its alloys. Just as for the galvanized steels, the
weld circuit resistance can be localized at the faying surface.
– Effective projection welding is largely a function of the specific
copper alloy used.
– With respect to embossed projection welding, the suitability for
welding appears to vary with the material strength level.
– Higher-strength copper alloys are relatively projection weldable.
However, lower-strength alloys appear to have difficulty retaining
projection shape under the applied welding force.
– Most copper alloys appear to be weldable with one or more forms
of solid projection welding
 Projection Types for Sheet and Solid
Applications

Spherical Projections

Elongated Projections

[Reference: Metals Handbook, Volume 6 (Welding, Brazing and

Soldering), p.503-524, ASM]
Projection Types for Sheet and Solid Applications

Annular Projections Annular Projection on

Pin-and-Tenon Joint

Pyramidal Projections Cross-Wire Weld

Projection Welded Front Axle and
Radiator Support for Tractors

[Reference: Resistance Welding Manual, p.3-4, RWMA]

Flash/Butt Welding
 Flash welding (FW) is a resistance welding process
that produces a weld at the faying surface of a butt
joint by a flashing action and by the application of
pressure after heating is substantially completed.
 The flashing action, caused by the very high current
densities at small contact points between the
workpieces, forcibly expels material from the joint as
the workpieces are slowly moved together.
 The weld is completed by a rapid upsetting of the
workpieces.
 Two parts to be joined are clamped in dies (electrodes)
connected to the secondary of a resistance welding
transformer.
 Voltage is applied as one part is advanced slowly toward
the other. When contact occurs at surface irregularities,
resistance heating occurs at these locations.
 Initially, one or several current pulses may be applied to
preheat the parts. There after, the force is
instantaneoulsy removed before entering a flashing cycle.
The preheat may not be used in all cases.
 Thereafter, the parts are brought back together. High
amperage causes rapid melting and vaporization of the
metal at the points of contact, and minute arcs form.
 The solidified metal expelled from the interface is called
“flash”. This is often removed by a scarfing machine.
 Basic Steps in Flash Welding

(a)
Electrodes (c)

(b)
Position and Clamp the Parts (d)
Flash

Upset and Terminate Current

Apply Flashing Voltage
and Start Platen Motion
[Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 2, p.583, AWS]
Typical applications:
(1) Butt welding of matching sections.
(2) Chain links.
(3) Railway lines.
(4) Window frames.
(5) Aero-engine rings.
(6) Car wheel rims.
(7) Metal strip in rolling mills.
 Advantages of Flash Welding

 Flexible cross sectioned shapes

 Flexible positioning for similar cross section parts

 Impurities can be removed during upset acts

 Faying surface preparation is not critical except for large
parts
 Can weld rings of various cross sections

 Narrower heat-affected zones than those of upset welds

 Limitations of Flash Welding
 Produce unbalance on three-phase primary power
lines

 The ejected molten metal particles present a fire

hazard

 Require special equipment for removal of flash metal

 Difficult alignment for workpieces with small cross
sections
 Require almost identical cross section parts
 Percussion welding
Capacitor Discharge Welding
Magnetic Force (AC)
 Percussion welding is a type of resistance welding that
blends dissimilar metals together.
 Percussion welding creates a high temperature arc that is
formed from a short quick electrical discharge.
Immediately following the electrical discharge, pressure
is applied which forges the materials together. This type
of joining brings the materials together in a percussive
manner.
 Percussion welding is similar to flash welding and upset
welding but is generally considered to be more complex.
 It is considered to be more complex because it uses an
electric discharge at the joint, followed by pressure being
applied to join the materials together.
 Percussion welding is used to join dissimilar metals
together, or used when flash is not required at the joint.
Percussion welding is used on materials that have small
cross sectional areas.
Applications: can be used to join like and unlike
metals that cannot usually be flash or stud welded.
It is used for fine wire leads to filaments such as
in lamps and electrical components.
A typical percussive weld is made on an electronic
component being welded to a circuit board such as
found in many microprocessor applications. The
weld is made rapidly without damage to the
terminal or board.
Variations of Percussion Welding

• Capacitor Discharge, Low V, Nib Start

• Capacitor Discharge, Low V, High Frequency Start
• Capacitor Discharge, High V
• Magnetic Force Method (AC)

There are several variations of this process as listed

here. Capacitive discharge with both high and low
voltage variations and different weld starting conditions,
and a process where an AC current is used to establish
the percussive force.
 Metals Joined

Like Metals Welded to Copper

Tantalum Alloys Gold
Copper Alloys Silver
Aluminum Alloys Copper-tungsten
Nickel Alloys Silver-tungsten
Low-carbon steel Silver-cadmium oxide
Medium-carbon steel Molybdenum
Stainless Steels

Other Dissimilar Wires

Thermocouple Wires
Molybdenum Wires
Nb-1Zr
85Zr-15Nb
Tantalum
 Welding Energy

1 E = energy in watt-seconds (joules)

E  CV 2 C = capacitance in farads
2 V = voltage

Amount of Energy Needed to Make Joint Depends on:

 Cross-sectional area of joint
 Properties of work metal or metals
 Depth to which metal is melted on workpieces

Welding Current
Polarity: No Effect for Like materials
Positive polarity for:
 Large Cross Section
 Higher Melting Point
 Higher Thermal Conductivity
Welding Force
Force must be strong enough to accelerate moving
part over short gap.
Force Supplied By:
 Electromagnet
 Gravity
 Cam-activated Direct Drive
 Spring
 Pneumatic
Arc Time
Arc Time is a Function of:
 Magnitude of magnetic force
 Timing of the magnetic force with relation to welding
current
 Inertia or mass of the moving parts in the force system
 Magnitude of the welding current and the diameter of
the projection
 Advantages of Percussion Welding
 Heat-treated and cold worked materials can be welded
without annealing.
 No Filler Metal required, No cast structure at interface.
 Charging rate is low and controlled, Line power line
demand
 Can tolerate some contamination on faying surface.

Limitations of Percussion Welding

 Limited to butt joints
 Total area limited
 Similar metals can usually be joined more
economically by other processes.
 Usually confined to joining of dissimilar metals not
normally considered weldable
AWS Welding Handbook
 Resistance Welding Problems and
Discontinuities

• Cracks
• Electrode deposit on work
• Porosity or cavities
• Pin holes
• Deep electrode indentation
• Improper weld penetration
• Surface appearance
• Weld size
• Irregular shaped welds
Solid state welding- mechanical:

 Friction welding,
 Friction stir welding
 Cold welding,
 Ultrasonic welding,
 Forge welding.
Friction Welding
 Friction welding is a process which produces a weld
under a compression force.
 The workpieces are brought into contact and rotated
very rapidly to produce heat. Usually one piece is
rotated against a stationary piece to produce the
heat at the junction.
 Geometries that have a rotational symmetry are
particularly suitable for friction welding. These can
include round bars and tubes, as well as bars-sheet
and tube-sheet applications.
No filler material involved
Welds created by,
a) Frictional heating
b) Mechanical deformation
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
 Process yields a narrow HAZ
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
 Developed in the 1940’s
 Can be used to join a wide variety of materials Process
can be fully automated
 Can weld solid steel bars up to 250mm in outside
diameter
 Friction Welding - Advantages
• For correct part geometry,
friction welding is faster
than most other processes
• Can join dissimilar
materials together
– Copper to steel or aluminum
• Easily automated for high
volume production
• Can join plastics
Limitations of Friction Welding
 Start-up cost is high
 Parts must be able to rotate about an axis of symmetry
 Free machining alloys are difficult to weld
 Non-forgeable materials cannot be friction welded
 At least one of the parts must be rotational
 Flash must usually be removed (extra operation)
 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be taken
into consideration in product design)
 Applications and Limitations of
Friction Welding
Applications:
• Shafts and tubular parts
• Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas
 Linear Friction Welding

 Parts are joined by a linear reciprocating motion

 Parts do not have to be circular or tubular
 In this application, one part is moved across the
face of the other part using a balanced
reciprocating mechanism
 Friction Stir Welding

Rotating probe
Sufficient downward force to maintain
pressure and to create friction heat provides friction
heat and pressure
which joins the
Shoulder which creates friction
heat
material
and welding pressure Sufficient
Probe which Stir the material downward force
to maintain
pressure and to
create friction
heat
 Microstructure Analysis

A. Unaffected material
B. Heat affected zone (HAZ)
C. Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
D. Weld nugget (Part of thermo-mechanically affected zone)
Joint Geometries

It can be used in all

positions,

Horizontal
Vertical
Overhead
Orbital
 Material Suitability

 Copper and its alloys

 Lead
 Titanium and its alloys
 Magnesium alloys
 Zinc
 Plastics
 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Nickel alloys
 Advantages
 Diverse materials: Welds a wide range of alloys,
including previously un-weldable (and possibly
composite materials)
 Durable joints: Provides twice the fatigue resistance of
fusion welds.
 Versatile welds: Welds in all positions and creates
straight or complex-shape welds
 Retained material properties: Minimizes material
distortion
 Safe operation: Does not create hazards such as
welding fumes, radiation, high voltage, liquid metals,
or arcing
 No keyholes: Pin is retracted automatically at end of
weld
 Tapered-thickness weld joints: Pin maintains full
penetration
 Comparison with other joining processes
FSW vs Fusion Welding
» Improved Mechanical Properties
» Reduced Distortion
» Reduced Defect Rate
» Parent Metal Chemistry
» Simplifies Dissimilar Alloy Welding
» Fewer Process Variables
» Eliminates Consumables
» Reduces Health Hazard
FSW vs Rivetting
» Reduced Part Count
» Reduced Production Time
» Reduced Defect Rates
» Increase in Load Carrying
Capability
» Improved Fracture
Performance
» Eliminates Consumables
» Less Operator Dependent
 Disadvantages
 Work pieces must be rigidly clamped
 Backing bar required (except where self-reacting tool
or directly opposed tools are used)
 Keyhole at the end of each weld
 Cannot make joints which required metal deposition
(e.g. fillet welds)
 Special clamping system necessary
 Only for simple joint geometries (e.g. butt joint)
 Few applications in the construction industry
 Corrosion protection is needed
 An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
 Heavy duty clamping of parts is required
 Cold Welding

 Cold welding is a solid-state process in which

pressure is used at room temperature to produce
coalescence of metals with substantial deformation
at the weld.
 Both butt and lap joints can be cold welded.
 At least one of the metals must be ductile without
excessive work-hardening.
 Total absence of applied heating.
 Dissimilar metals can be joined.
 Surface preparation is important.
 Cold Welding Process Description
Dies

 The parts to be welded are first

cleaned.
 A short section of the part is Workpiece Workpiece
sheared.
 The parts are clamped in a die
with some initial extension. Before welding
 A forging force is applied to
complete welding.
After welding
 Applications of Cold Welding
 Cold welded butt joints are used in the manufacturing
of aluminum, copper, gold, silver, and platinum wire.
 Most commonly, successive reels of wire are joined for
continuous drawing to a smaller diameter.
 Forge Welding
 Welding process in which components to be joined
are heated to hot working temperature range and
then forged together by hammering or similar
means.
 Historic significance in development of
manufacturing technology
 Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of metal
 Of minor commercial importance today except for
its variants
Roll Welding (ROW)
 SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause
coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either
with or without external heat
 Variation of either forge welding or cold welding,
depending on whether heating of workparts is
done prior to process
 If no external heat, called cold roll welding
 If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
 Roll Welding Applications
• Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy
steel for corrosion resistance
• Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
ULTRASONIC WELDING
Definition of Ultrasonic Welding
A solid state welding process in which
coalescence is produced at the faying
surfaces by the application of high
frequency vibratory energy while the
work pieces are held together under
moderately low static pressure.
 Ultrasonic Welding Process
Clamping
force

Mass
Process
Description: wedge Transducer

• Components of
Sonotrode
ultrasonic welding tip

system include: Vibration Weldment

– Transducer Anvil

– Sonotrode Force

– Anvil
 Ultrasonic Welding Mechanism
Clamping
force
• A static clamping force is Mass
applied perpendicular to the
interface between the work
pieces. wedge Transducer
• The contacting sonotrode
oscillates parallel to the
interface. Sonotrode
tip
• Combined effect of static and
oscillating force
10-75 produces
KHz workpiece
deformation which promotes
welding. Anvil
Force
 Welding Variables

Ultrasonic Welding Variables

• Ultrasonic power
• Clamping force
• Welding time
• Frequency
• Linear Vibration Amplitude
 Power Generation

Ultrasonic Welding Power Generation

• Frequency is transformed to
vibration energy through the
transducer.
• Energy requirement established Electrical Frequency
Converter
through the following empirical energy
relationship.
– E = K (HT)3/2
– E = electrical energy
– H = Vickers hardness number
– T = thickness of the sheet Vibratory
transducer
 Power Requirements

E  K(HT) 3/2

Where:
E = electrical energy, W*s (J)
k = a constant for a given welding system
H = Vickers hardness number of the sheet
T = thickness of the sheet in contact with the sonotrode tip, in. (mm)

The constant “K” is a complex function that appears to involve primarily the
electromechanical conversion efficiency of the transducer, the impedance
match into the weld, and other characteristics of the welding system.
Different types of transducer systems have substantially different K values.
 Ultrasonic Welding Interfacial
Interaction
• Localized temperature rises resulting from
interfacial slip and plastic deformation.
• Temperature is also influenced by power,
clamping force, and thermal properties of the
material.
• Localized Plastic Deformation
• Metallurgical phenomena such as
recrystallizing, phase transformation, etc.....
can occur.
 Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding
• No heat is applied and no melting occurs.
• Permits welding of thin to thick sections.
• Welding can be made through some surface
coatings.
• Pressures used are lower, welding times are
shorter, and the thickness of deformed
regions are thinner than for cold welding.
 Limitations of Ultrasonic Welding
• The thickness of the component adjacent to
the sonotrode tip must not exceed relatively
thin gages because of power limitations of the
equipment.
• Process is limited to lap joints.
• Butt welds can not be made because there is
no means of supporting the workpieces and
applying clamping force.
 Applications of Ultrasonic Welding
 Assembling of electronic components such as diodes
and semiconductors with substrates.
 Electrical connections to current carrying devices
including motors, field coils, and capacitors. Wire
terminations and splicing in electrical and
electronics industry
 Eliminates need for soldering
 Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
 Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
 Assembly of small parts in automotive industry
 Encapsulation and packaging.
 Plastic parts
Diffusion Welding
 Definition of Diffusion Welding
• A solid-state welding process
that produces coalescence of
the faying surfaces by the Force
Work pieces
application of pressure at
elevated temperature.
A
• The process does not involve
B
macroscopic deformation, or
relative motion of the
workpieces.
• A solid filler metal may or may Schematic representation of
not be inserted between the diffusion welding using
faying surfaces. electrical resistance for heating
AWS Welding Handbook
Diffusion Welding Working Principles
• 1st stage
– deformation forming
interfacial boundary.
• 2nd stage
– Grain boundary migration
and pore elimination.
• 3rd stage
1st stage deformation
asperities come
into contact.
and interfacial boundary
formation
2nd stage grain 3rd stage volume
boundary migration diffusion pore
and pore elimination elimination

– Volume diffusion and pore

elimination.
 Relation between Temperature and Diffusion
Coefficient

• D = D0 e -Q/KT
– D = Diffusion coefficient
– D0 = Diffusion constant
– Q = Activation energy
– T = Absolute temperature
– K = Boltzman’s constant
– Temperature
Factors Influencing Diffusion Welding

• X = C (Dt)1/2 = Diffusion Length

– X = Diffusion length
– C = A constant
– D = Diffusion coefficient (see previous slide)
– t =Time
• Pressure
 Diffusion welding is dependent on temperature,
time, and applied pressure.
 Temperature and time are related through
characteristic diffusion distances described in the
above equation.
 Pressure influences diffusion welding in a more
complex way. Compressive stress (pressure) must
be present in diffusion welding, but the required
loading might be well below the room temperature
yield strength of the materials being welded.
Applications of Diffusion Welding
• Application in titanium welding for aero-
space vehicles.
• Diffusion welding of nickel alloys include
Inconel 600, wrought Udimet 700, and
Rene 41.
• Dissimilar metal diffusion welding
applications include Cu to Ti, Cu to Al, and
Cu to Cb-1%Zr. Brittle intermetallic
compound formation must be controlled in
these applications.
 Diffusion Welding of Dissimilar Metals

Some Potential Problems

 An intermetallic phase or a brittle intermetallic compound

may form at the weld interface. Selection of an
appropriate filler metal can usually prevent such
problems. Joint designs can help also.
 Low melting phases may form. Sometime this effect is
beneficial
 Porosity may form due to unequal rates of metal transfer
by diffusion in the region adjacent to the weld (Kirkendall
Porosity). Proper welding conditions or the use of and
appropriate filler metal or both may prevent this problem.
Explosion Welding
 Basics
• Explosion welding is a solid-state process that
produces a high velocity interaction of
dissimilar metals by a controlled detonation
• Oxides found on material surfaces must be
removed by effacement or dispersion
• Surface atoms of two joining metals must
come into intimate contact to achieve metallic
bond
 Principles of Explosion Welding
• Welding arrangement
Detonator
Explosive

consists of three
components -
– Base component
prime
– Prime component component

– Explosive. Base
component Component arrangement
• Base component for explosion welding
remains stationary,
supported by anvil.
 Principles of Explosion Welding
• Prime component is placed
either parallel or at an angle
Detonation
to the base.
• Explosive is distributed over
top surface of prime
component. Prime
Weld
• Upon detonation, prime component
Jet
component collides with Base
base component to complete component

welding. Action between components

during explosion welding.
 Principle of Explosion
• Cladder metal can be placed parallel or
inclined to the base plate
• Explosive material is distributed over top of
cladder metal
• Upon detonation, cladder plate collides with
base plate to form weld
 Placement of Cladder metal-parallel
• Standoff distance predetermined and
unique to material combination
– Achieved by placing shims
between plates
– Shims designed to be consumed by
explosion wave and do not affect
weld
• Usually ranges between 0.5-2 times
the thickness of cladder plate
• Cladder must reach critical velocity
before impact
Cladder placement-Angled

VD

Where:
Vc VC = collision velocity
VD = detonation velocity
Vp VP = plate Collision velocity
α = preset angle
β = dynamic bend angle
γ = collision angle
 Explosive material
• High velocity (14750-25000 ft/s)
– Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
– Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX)
– Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN)
• Mid-low velocity (4900-47500 ft/s)
– Ammonium nitrate
– Ammonium perchlorate
– Amatol
 Assuring a good weld
• Three types of detonation wave welds
– Shock wave develops if sonic velocity is greater
than 120% of material sonic velocity (type 1)
– Detached shock wave results when detonation
velocity is between 100% and 120% of material
sonic velocity (type 2)
– No shock wave is produced if detonation velocity
is less than material sonic velocity (type 3)
 Assuring a good weld
• Type 1
– Material behind shock wave is compressed to
peak pressure and density
– Creates significant plastic deformation locally and
results in considerable ‘shock hardening’
• Type 2 & 3
– Pressure is generated ahead of collision point of
metals
– When subject to large pressures, metal ahead of
collision point flows into spaces between plates
and takes form of high-velocity jet
– Effaces material and removes unwanted oxides
and other unwanted surface films
– No bulk diffusion and only localized melting
 Assuring a good weld
• Detonation velocity is a function of
– Explosive type
– Composition of explosive
– Thickness of explosive layer
– Can be found in tables
 Assuring a good weld
• Sonic velocity of cladding material can
calculated using:

Where:
K = adiabatic bulk modulus
ρ = cladding material density
E = Young’s Modulus of cladding material
‫ = ע‬Poisson’s ratio of cladding material
 Advantages
• No heat-affected zone (HAZ)
• Only minor melting
• Material melting temperatures and
coefficients of thermal expansion differences
do not affect the final product
• The shock front compresses and heats the
explosive material which exceeds the sonic
velocity of undetonated explosives
 Applications
• Any metal with sufficient strength and
ductility can be joined
• Can weld large areas of metal
• Can weld inside and outside surfaces of pipes
• Transition joints can be made
 Common industries that use explosion welding

• Chemical Processing
• Petroleum Refining
• Hydrometallurgy
• Aluminum Smelting
• Shipbuilding
• Electrochemical
• Oil & Gas
• Power Generation
• Cryogenic Processing
• Pulp & Paper
• Air conditioning & Chillers
• Metal Production
 Examples

3” Diameter AI/SS Ring Copper/Stainless 12” UHV Assembly

Thermit or Thermite Welding
 Thermit welding is a mixture of aluminium powder
and metal oxide which when ignited results in a
non explosive exothermic reaction.
 The heat so generated melts and reduces the metal
oxide to metallic form at high temperature.
 This molten metal is used for joining metal parts by
pouring it between them resulting in cast weld joint.
Aluminothermic Welding
3Fe3O4(s) + 8Al(s)  4Al2O3(s) + 9Fe(s) H = -3347.6 kJ/mol
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s)  Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s) H = -851.5 kJ/mol

 For maximum efficiency, the magnetite thermite mixture

should contain 23.7% aluminium and 76.3% iron oxide
(mass percent).
 Using hematite, iron oxide, the themite mixture should
contain 25.3% aluminum and 74.7% iron oxide (mass
percent).
 The reaction using Fe3O4 produces a substantially larger
amount of energy/mole reaction. The reaction using
Fe2O3 produces more energy/gram of thermite mixture.
 Temperature is raised to 2000-2200oC.
 Safety of Thermit Welding
 Thermite should not be used near flammable materials; small
streams of molten iron released in the reaction can travel
considerable distances and may melt through metal
containers, ignite their contents, etc.
 Flammable metals with relatively low boiling points such as
Zinc should be kept away from thermite, as contact with such
metals could potentially boil superheated metal violently into
the air, where it could then burst into flame as it is exposed to
oxygen. The boiling point of Zinc at 1665 °F (907 °C) is about
2500 °F (1371 °C) below the combustion temperature of
thermite.
 Thermite must be used with care in welding pipes or other
items with air cavities, as thermal expansion of trapped gases
may cause bursting.
 Generally, the ignition of thermite should be timed so that
individuals handling it have ample time to get away.
Advantages:
This process is used for welding of damaged wobblers
and large broken crankshafts
To restore the broken teeth on gears

Disadvantages:
It is not possible for low melting points
High skill operators are required
Reduces the risks to operate
Low deposition rate
High level of fume
Atomic Hydrogen welding
 Atomic Hydrogen welding

 It is a combination of electric arc and gas welding

technique
 Arc is generated between the two non-consumable
tungsten electrodes
 While applying the hydrogen gas to the arc region, due to
arc temperature the hydrogen molecules are disassociated
into individual hydrogen atoms.
 These are unstable, as the hydrogen atoms slightly move
away from the arc due to reduced temperature. They will
recombine as hydrogen molecules
 During the process due to exothermic reaction more heat
is released.
 This is used to melt the base material to produce a fusion
joint
 Hydrogen gas acts as heating element, as well as it acts as
shielded gas to protect the molten liquid metal from the
atmospheric gases.
Applications:
 These are used in welding of tool steels which contains
tungsten nickel and molybdenum
 Hard surfacing and repairing of dies and tools.
Advantages:
 Faster welding process
 Work piece material does not form the electric circuit.
 Maintaining the arc column and striking the arc must be
estimated
 During the process at the joints intense flame is obtained
 There is no requirement of the shielding gas or flux
Disadvantages:
 Compare to the other process the cost of welding is high
 Welding process is limited to flat positions only.
Hardfacing is the deposition of thick coatings of hard, wear-resistant
materials on a worn or new component surface that is subject to wear in
service. Thermal spraying, spray-fuse and welding processes are generally
used to apply the hardfacing layer.
Thermal spraying is preferred for applications requiring minimal thermal
distortion of the component and good process control. Typical hardfacing
materials deposited by thermal spraying include cermets such as WC-Co and
alumina-based ceramics. These coatings are applied to a thickness of about
0.3mm. Spray-fuse coatings, also referred to as self-fluxing overlay coatings,
are first applied to the component surface using a flame spraying process and
then subsequently fused using an oxyacetylene torch or an RF induction coil.
The fused coating wets the substrate surface to produce a coating that is
metallurgically bonded to the substrate and is free of porosity. There are
various alloy types used with the spray-fuse process, the most important are
based on the Ni-Cr-B-Si-C alloy system. Depending on composition they melt
in the range of 980 to 1200°C.
Weld hard facing is used to deposit very thick (1 to 10mm) dense
layers of wear resistant material with high bond strength. Various
welding techniques can be used, including metal-inert gas (MIG),
tungsten-inert gas (TIG), plasma transferred arc (PTA), submerged
arc (SAW) and manual metal arc (MMA). A very broad range of
coating materials can be applied. They include cobalt-based alloys
(Stellites ), martensitic and high-speed steels, nickel alloys and WC-
Co cemented carbides. After deposition by any of the above
welding processes, it is often necessary to finish the component
surface.
 DISTORTION
 Welding involves highly localized heating of the
metal being joined together.
 The temperature distribution in the weldment is
nonuniform.
 Normally, the weld metal and the heat affected zone
(HAZ) are at temperatures substantially above that of
the unaffected base metal.
 Upon cooling, the weld pool solidifies and shrinks,
exerting stresses on the surrounding weld metal and
HAZ.
 If the stresses produced from thermal expansion and
contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent
metal, localized plastic deformation of the metal
occurs.
 Plastic deformation results in lasting change in the
component dimensions and distorts the
structure. This causes distortion of weldments.
Types of distortion

•Longitudinal shrinkage
• Transverse shrinkage
• Angular distortion
• Bowing
• Buckling
• Twisting
Factors affecting distortion

• If a component were uniformly heated and cooled distortion

would be minimized. However, welding locally heats a
component and the adjacent cold metal restrains the heated
material. This generates stresses greater than yield stress
causing permanent distortion of the component. Some of
the factors affecting the distortion are:

1. Amount of restraint
2. Welding procedure
3. Parent metal properties
4. Weld joint design
5. Part fit up
• Restraint - to minimize distortion. Components welded
without any external restraint are free to move or distort in
response to stresses from welding. It is not unusual for many
shops to clamp or restrain components to be welded in some
manner to prevent movement and distortion. This restraint
does result in higher residual stresses in the components.
• Welding procedure impacts the amount of distortion
primarily due to the amount of the heat input produced. The
welder has little control on the heat input specified in a
welding procedure. This does not prevent the welder from
trying to minimize distortion. While the welder needs to
provide adequate weld metal, the welder should not
needlessly increase the total weld metal volume added to a
weldment.
• Parent metal properties, which have an effect on distortion,
are coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat of the
material. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the metal
affects the degree of thermal expansion and contraction and
the associated stresses that result from the welding
process. This in turn determines the amount of distortion in a
component.
• Weld joint design will effect the amount of distortion in a
weldment. Both butt and fillet joints may
experience distortion. However, distortion is easier to
minimize in butt joints.
• Part fit up should be consistent to fabricate foreseeable and
uniform shrinkage. Weld joints should be adequately and
consistently tacked to minimize movement between the parts
being joined by welding.
Welding Discontinuities

Some examples of welding discontinuities are shown below.

Evaluation of the discontinuity will determine if the
discontinuity is a defect or an acceptable condition

Incomplete Fusion - A weld discontinuity in which

fusion did not occur between weld metal and fusion
faces or adjoining weld beads.
Undercut - A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root
and left unfilled by weld metal.
Overlap - The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root.
Underfill - A condition in which the weld face or root surface extends below the adjacent
surface of the base metal.

Incomplete Joint Penetration - A joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld
metal does not extend through the joint thickness

•Partial joint penetration groove welds are commonly specified in lowly loaded
structures. However, incomplete joint penetration when a full penetration joint is
required, as depicted above, would be cause for rejection. A fix for an incomplete
penetration joint would be to back gouge and weld from the other side. Another
acceptable partial penetration joint is shown below.
Partial penetration joint on the left without discontinuities is an
acceptable condition.

Appropriate engineering decisions need to be applied to determine

what type of joint should be specified for a given application.
Several different representations of weld Cracking
Representation of a convex fillet weld without discontinuities
THE END