Reservoir Characterization

1- Rock Properties
Ammar Jelassi
ENIM 191101
 Reservoir Rocks

• A conventional petroleum system is made of 4

elements: source rock (kerogen maturation-> HC),
migration, reservoir (ϕ, k), seal
• Various configurations found. Ideal: oil sandwitched
between gas cap & aquifer with transition zones.
• Reservoir rocks mainly sedimentary rocks, mostly
sandstones and carbonates (limestones, dolomites)
of various textures; some igneous & metamorphic.
• Carbonates are successfully acidized, ss difficult
• Tunisia: ss (Kirchaou, TAGI, Acacus, Hamra, Bir Ben
Tartar, Birsa); ls (Serdj, Abiod, El Gueria, Rheineche)
Conventional Petroleum System: Anticline Trap
Typical HC Reservoir Configuration
 Measurement of Properties
• Some information during drilling but measurement
• on cores: ϕ, k, SCAL (ϕ, k under overburden at res.
P & T, drainage-imbibition, Pc, kr, wettability, Soc,
resistivity, geomechanical); data also to geologists,
geophysicists, drilling engineers… but expensive.
• from Logs, e.g. porosity logs often in combination.
Different behaviour N & D Logs in gas reservoir, N-D
& Sonic in presence of secondary porosity. Layering
• Calibration of porosity logs on core data advisable
• Fluid saturations from logs (seismic, HP cores, RFT)
• Average permeability from well tests, possibly with
difference between k from cores & test.
 CORING ASSEMBLY
AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection

PDC Cutters

Thrust bearing

Outer barrel

Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring

Core bit
SIDEWALL CORING TOOL

Coring bit

Samples
Logging Tools
Logging Toolstring Run
 Cleanness/Shaliness
• Shale fraction from GR & SP (GR deflections reflect
sometimes presence of other radioactive minerals);
determined from shale index (GR-GRc)/(GRsh-GRc)
& distribution (laminar, structural, dispersed).
• Cut-offs are often used (elimination of intervals e.g.
> 25% shale, as they don’t contribute to flow)
• Shale intercalated between reservoir layers results
in poor (or no) communication between them
• Better interpretation if both GR & SP available (GR’s
deflection may indicate some non-shale rocks).
• Growing interest in shale (unconventional reservoir)
 Example of Gamma Ray Log
GR
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5185
5195
5205
5215
5225
5235
5245
5255
5265
5275
5285
5295
5305
5315
5325
5335
5345
5355
5365
5375
5385
5395
5405
5415
 Porosity
• Defined as Porous Volume/Bulk Rock Volume
• Reduced by mixing grains of different sizes (sorting).
• Primary vs Secondary (vugs, fractures, dolomitization)
• Effective (interconnected) vs Ineffective (isolated)
• Fractured reservoirs classified by fracture share of total
ϕ & k (Nelson). Dual ϕ/k models. Examples: Ashtart &
Hasdrubal (El Gueria limest.), Sabria & Franig (sandst.).
• Application of cut-offs which depend on rock type
• Variability measured by Coef. Variation, Lorenz Coef,
Dykstra-Parsons Coefs. Affects behavior.
• Range: 10-40% (conventional reservoirs)
• Measured on cores & by the 3 Porosity Logs (N, D, S)
• Fluid Saturation (mainly logs), changes during depletion
• ϕ constant during production (rarely compaction)
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Pore space

 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
1. Framework
2. Matrix
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 Porosity with 2 Packings of Spheres
Cubic Packing Rhombohedric Packing

Porosity = 47.6% Porosity = 25.9 %

 Porosity: Effect of Sorting

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%
Porosity log interpretation chart
Example of porosity histogram
Spatial Variation of Porosity: Iso-ϕ Curves (%)
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

Fractured carbonate rocks
Primary & Secondary Porosity from φS & φN-D
 Nelson Classification of Fractured Reservoirs
• Type1: Fractures provide essential k & essential ϕ
(matrix with low ϕ & k)
• Type2: Fractures provide essential k, matrix ess. ϕ
(matrix with low k but fair or high ϕ)
• Type3: Fractures provide a permeability assist
(matrix with good k & ϕ)
• Type4: F. do not provide significant additional k or ϕ
(in a good reservoir, but create flow barriers)
 Permeability
• Darcy’s Law: Q = -(k/μ).A.(∆P/∆x)
• Based on Hagen-Poiseuille Equation k= C.d2
• Range md: conventional 1-1000, tight 0.1, shale 10-3
• Correlation with porosity: k ∝ ϕb, b > 3; Kozeny-
Carman: k= a. ϕ3/(1- ϕ2), a ∝ D2; improved by rock
typing, & multi-regression analysis (Vsh, Sw, depth)
• Permeability Estimation if core data available.
• Average k calculated from well tests
• Wireline Formation Testers, NMR (claimed)
• Anisotropy (especially kv/kh, typically 0.1)
• Fractures increase k substantially (& ϕ modestly)
Example of Permeability vs Porosity Plot
Permeability vs Porosity & Grain Size
 Equivalent Permeability of multiple zones
• High Variability (vertical & areal heterogeneity)
measured by Dykstra-Parsons, Lorenz... indices
• Horizontal flow in parallel layers, no crossflow:
km = (Σkihi)/(Σhi)
• Flow crossing parallel zones
km = (ΣLi)/(ΣLi/ki)
• Flow around a well with concentric zones:
Ln(re/rw)/km = ΣLn(ri(ext)/ri(int))/ki
• Geometric mean, intermediate between arithmetic &
harmonic means, represents better “average” k.
• Possible presence of barriers & channels, falts…
 Radial Flow (vertical well)
• Oil & Water ~ incompressible (c: 10-4 bar-1)
• Qres = 2πh(k/μ).ΔP/Ln(re/rw) (stationary state)
• Qo = 2πh(ko/μo).ΔP/(Bo.Ln(re/rw))
ΔP = QoμoBo.Ln(re/rw)/(2πkh)
• Practical Units: ΔP = 141.2QoμoBo.Ln(re/rw)/(kh)
• PI = 0.00708kh/(μoBo.Ln(re/rw))
• Skin effect: Ln(re/rw) + s s sum 3 components
• Gas compressible, PV/Z ~ constant (isothermal flow)
• Qres = (k/μ).A.((P12-P22)/2Pm)/L
• Q g = 0.703kh(Pr2 – Pw2)/(ZTμg.Ln(re/rw))
 Multiphase Flow
• From presence of water (Swi, aquifer, injection) &
gas (liberated, gas cap, injection)
• Darcy’s Law valid for each fluid with keffective
• kr = ke/k depends only on S; drainage/imbibition
cycles: Scritical’s unchanged; kro + krw <1
• kr from SCAL (steady/unsteady displacement);
correlations based on Swn concept(Corey, LET)
• Swn = (Sw-Swc)/(1 – Swc – Soc)
• Not piston-like displacement. Analytical solution
• fw = 1/(1+(μw/μo).kro(Sw)/krw(Sw)) = 1/(1+m(Sw))
• 3-phase kr’s based on 2-ϕ kr’s & 3-ϕ Snormalized.
Drainage & Imbibition
Relative Permeability: Hysterisis
Typical kr’s vs Sw curves
Example of Corey correlation

= (Sw–Swi)/(1-Swi–Sor)
Example of LET correlation
Example of 3-Phase Flow: WAG
3-Phase Flow: Relative Permeability to Gas
 Mechanical Properties
• Consolidated vs Unconsolidated formations
• Compressibility: definition: C = -1/V.(∂V/∂P)T
• Formation Compressibility: Cf = Cp = 1/ϕ.(∂ϕ/∂P)T
• Rock+Fluid Compressibility: Ct = SoCo + SwCw + Cf
• Correlations (consolidated form.): Hall, Newman
• Other properties: density (sand 2.65, limestone 2.71,
dolomite 2.87…) from lab or lithology, sound velocity,
elastic moduli (Bulk, Shear, Young, Poisson’s Ratio),
resistance to stress; oil & gas shale brittleness
depends on mineralogical composition (clay vs
quartz & other), affects feasibility of HF.
 Correlations for Rock Strength (UCS in Mpa)
• Freyburg (1972, Germany) 0.035 Vp – 31.5
• McNally (1987, Australia) 1200 exp(-0.036∆t)
• Vernik et al (1993 worldwide) A(1-Bϕ)2
• Moos et al (1999, Alaska) 1.745 10-9 ρVp2 – 21
• Mark D Zoback (2010): Reservoir Geomechanics
with conditions of application.
• Large differences between estimates from these
correlations necessity of calibration with lab data.
• Interest: HF (Fracking Pressure), avoiding frac (WI),
Sand Production…
 Electrical Properties
• Rock conductivity linked to connate water (& clay)
• Archie Formula: Sw = (a/ϕm .Rw/Rt)1/n
• F: 1/ϕ2 (compact), 0.62/ϕ2.15 or 0.81/ϕ2 (high ϕ)
• Independent of Rw, ion type, T.
• Errors in ϕ estimation amplified by Sw calculation.
• Cementation factor: m: 1.8-2 (consolidated sandst.),
1.3 (poorly consolidated). Correlations m vs ϕ.
• Rw measured, estimated from chemical analysis
NaCleq Rw 75°F then Tres, 1/Rw ∝ Salinity &T°F+6.8
SP or depth & water from similar formations
• Archie Soc invaded zone & efficiencymicroscopic WD.
Sw calculated from Archie formula
Well geometry after drilling
35

Water Conductivity (S/m at 75F) vs Salinity (kppm NaCl)

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Bateman & Konen Crain Kennedy
Formation Water Resistivity
Water Resistivity vs Temperature
 Capillary Pressure of 2 fluids
• Definition: pc = pnw - pw
• Depends on Sw, determines transition zone’s height
• Below WOC (Sw=1), lays the Free Water level (pc=0)
• Mostly water is the wetting phase. Oil-wet & mixed
wettability rocks exist. Oil wetting with gas
• With cycles of imbibition and drainage: hysterisis
• Capillary forces spread wetting phase (fingering…)
• Wettability affects waterflood performance
• Miscible flood eliminates capillary forces high RF
• Measured: porous plate (possibly with reservoir
fluids, accurate but slow), Hg injection, centrifuge
Transition zone vs ∆ρ & k
Pc measurement: porous plate & Hg porosimetry
 Reservoir Conditions
• Reservoir temperature & pressure increase with
depth (geothermal gradient ≈ 1°F/70ft, hydrostatic
gradient ≈ 0.44 psi/ft), with anomalies in some
cases due for instance to local present or ancient
volcanism (high T) or compaction ( overpressure)
• T&P affect HCs FVF (conversion factor ResStd), HC
phase equilibrium, salt equilibrium in reservoir
water, its resistivity and that of mud & mud filtrate.
• T remains constant over field life, but P may decline
drastically during the natural depletion phase.
• Pressure maintenance (WI, GI, WAG). Heating heavy
oil to reduce μo.
Pressure Gradient (P vs depth)
Fluid Contacts from Pressure vs ReservoirDepth
 Unconventional Reservoirs
• Low k or high μ. Two types are of interest in Tunisia.
• Tight Reservoirs: with low matrix k (0.1 md, Abiod
with ϕ <10%, quartzites), may be good producers if
fractured naturally (Sidi el Kilani) or through HF
• Shales have lower kmatrix (10-3 md), may be good
producers with natural fracturing (Bou Dabbous in
Belli field) or HF. Possibly: Silurian & M Devonian
Shales (Ghadames Basin), Bahloul (Central Eastern
Tunisia). Relevant properties: mineralogical
composition (clay content), kerogen type, maturity,
TOC, permeability, geomechanical properties… High
decline rates & low RF in both cases.