ANIMAL

ANIMAL
ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION
   
 are a major group of mostly
multicellular, eukaryotic organisms
of the kingdom
Animalia or Metazoa.
 Most are motile, meaning they can move
spontaneously and independently.
 are also heterotrophs, meaning they
must ingest other organisms for
sustenance.

 comes from the Latin word “animal”

(meaning with soul, from anima, soul).
 General Characteristics of
Animals

 multicellular with well-developed tissues

 usually motile; heterotrophic by
ingestion; diplontic life cycle
 classified based on the type of
symmetry, number of tissue layers, type
of coelom, and presence of segmentation
 MAIN ANIMAL DIVISION

 As to the presence of backbone

 As to symmetry
 As to type of Body Coelom
As to the presence of backbone

1. Invertebrates
o an animal without a skeletal structure.

The group includes 95% of all animal

species — all animals except those in
the Chordate subphylum Vertebrata (
fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and
mammals).
As to the presence of backbone

2. Vertebrates
o are members of the subphylum

Vertebrata, chordates with backbones

or spinal columns.
 As to Symmetry
 There are three types of symmetry.
 Spherical
 Radial
 Bilateral
 Animal symmetry
 Spherical symmetry occurs mainly among
protozoans.
 Radial symmetry occurs among the
Cnidarians (jellyfish) and Echinoderms
(starfish, sea urchins).
 Bilateral symmetry commonest form of
symmetry. When cut at the center of the
body, it will produce two identical halves
with definite right and left halves.
Worms, mollusks, arthropods,
echinoderms, and chordates.
A variety of descriptive terms are used to
describe orientation in bilateral animals.
Development of body plans
 An animal’s body results from division of
cells during embryonic development.

 Differences in developmental patterns

have been used to classify more complex
animals so an understanding of basic
embryology is necessary to follow this.
 Process of development
 Once an egg is fertilized it becomes a
zygote. This cell divides into a large
number of cells called blastomeres.

 Cleavage of cells proceeds until a fluid-

filled hollow ball of cells is formed. This
is a blastula.

 In multicellular animals other than

sponges the blastula invaginates to begin
forming the future gut. At this stage the
embryo is a gastrula.
 Process of development
 The invaginating layer of cells, which will
give rise to the gut, form a germ layer
called the endoderm. The endoderm
surrounds and defines a body cavity
called the gastrocoel.

 The cells not involved in forming the

invagination constitute another germ
layer the ectoderm. The ectoderm
surrounds a cavity called the blastocoel.
gastrocoel
 Process of development
 When the invaginating gastrocoel forms a
complete tube by forming a second
opening to the outside it is then called
the gut.

 In the cnidarians (jellyfish, sea

anemones) no second opening develops.
 Process of development
 In most animals (but not cnidarians,
which are two-layered or diploblastic) a
third germ layer of cells called the
mesoderm develops.

 The mesoderm gives rise to many

internal organs. Organisms with
mesoderm are called triploblastic
having three germ layers.
 Germ layers
 Endoderm: innermost germ layer of an
embryo. Forms the gut, liver, pancreas.

 Ectoderm: Outer layer of cells in early

embryo. Surrounds the blastocoel.
Forms outer epithelium of body and
nervous system.

 Mesoderm: Third germ layer formed in

gastrula between ectoderm and
endoderm. Gives rise to connective
tissue, muscle, urogenital and vascular
systems and peritoneum.
 Process of development
 The way in which the mesoderm forms,
and whether or not a cavity (called a
coelom) develops within it, are
important characters in deciphering the
relatedness of animal groups.
As to type of Body Coelom
 The coelom is a cavity entirely
surrounded by mesoderm.
 A coelom provides a tube-within-a-tube
arrangement which has many
advantages:
 Allows flexibility in arranging visceral organs
 permits greater size and complexity by
exposing more cells to surface exchange
 fluid-filled ceolom can act as a hydrostatic
skeleton
 Coeloms
 Triploblastic organisms (organisms with
three germ layers including mesoderm fall
into one of three different coelomic states:
 Acoelomate: mesoderm fills the blastoceol, no
cavity occurs in the mesoderm. Flatworms and
nemerteans.
 Pseudocoelomate: mesoderm lines only outer
edge of blastocoel. No peritoneal lining
develops. Nematodes and rotifers.
 Eucoelomate: Have a true coelom derived
from mesoderm and lined with peritoneum.
Arthropods, annelids, mollusks, echinoderms,
vertebrates.
Both eucolomate
 Protostomes and
Deuterostomes
 Within the eucolomates there are two
major evolutionary lineages that split
early in the history of animals and follow
quite different developmental pathways.

These are the protostomes “mouth first”

and deuterostomes “mouth second”.
 Important differences in development
between protostomes and deuterostomes

 The differences in development that

distinguish the protostomes and
deuterostomes include:
 Whether cleavage of cells in the early zygote
is spiral or radial.
 Whether or not, if the early blastomere is
separated, each cell can develop into a normal
larva or not.
 Whether the blastopore ultimately forms the
mouth or anus of the organism.
 Whether or not the organism possesses a
coelom and how that coelom is formed.
Figure 08.10
 Protostomes and
Deuterostomes
 Protostomes include the annelids,
mollusks, and arthropods.

 Deuterostomes include the echinoderms

and vertebrates.
 Embryonic Tissues

 Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are

embryonic tissues that give rise to all of
the tissues, organs, and organ systems in
the body.
 Ectoderm forms the outer layer of skin
and nervous system.
 Mesoderm forms the muscles,
connective tissues, skeleton, kidneys,
and circulatory and reproductive organs.
 Endoderm forms the lining of the gut,
respiratory tract, and urinary bladder. It
also forms the glands associated with the
gut and respiratory tract.
ANIMAL TISSUES
Categories of Tissues

 Epithelium
 Connective
 Muscle
 Nervous
 Epithelium
 Lines, covers, and protects external
surfaces and internal cavities and
organs.
 Forms continuous layer of compactly
arranged cells
 Cells have two ends, one end free or
exposed to external or internal
environment, the other end attached
or supported by a basement
membrane
 Types as to Structure or
Number of Cells
1. Simple epithelial tissue
 composed of one layer of cells
 Linings of blood vessels, ducts, digestive
tracts

Squamous Epithelium - Frog Skin Flat Mount

 Types as to Structure or
Number of Cells
2. Stratified epithelial tissue
 Composed of two or more layers of

cells
 Located in sites subjected to friction or
pressures such as skin (keratinized), vagina,
esophagus (non-keratinized)

Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Human sec. X 100

 Types as to Structure or
Number of Cells
3. Pseudostratified epithelial tissue
 All cells are in contact with the

basement membrane but not reach

the surface
 Lining of the respiratory tract, urethra of
males

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

 As to Function
1. glandular epithelial tissue
- for secretion of chemicals

a. Unicellular glandular epithelial tissue

- goblet cells in intestines

b. Multicellular glandular epithelial tissue – could

be with ducts (exocrine glands) such as sweat
glands and oil glands, or without ducts
(endocrine glands) such as the thyroid and
adrenals
 As to Function

2. Sensory epithelial tissue

- for reception of stimuli and
transmission of impulses; located in the
sense organs, skin, retina, tongue

3. Germinal epithelial tissue

- for reproduction; located in the sex
organs, ovary and testis.
 Shapes of Cells

1. Squamous epithelium – flat cells, lining

of mouth, esophagus
2. Cuboidal epithelium- cube-shaped cells,
lining of kidney tubules
3. Columnar epithelium – pillar-shaped
cells with the nuclei usually located near
the bottom of each cell; lining of
trachea, small intestines
 Examples of Simple
Squamous Epithelium
 Cuboidal Epithelium
 Cells cube shaped- secretion and
absorption.
 Kidney tubules
 Duct and small glands
 Surface of ovary
Simple Columnar epithelium
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Binds structures together, connects many
body parts
 Provides support and protection
 Fills spaces, stores fat, and forms blood
cells
 With abundant intercellular materials
(matrix) composed of collagenous
and/or elastic fibers
As to Arrangement of Fibers
in the Matrix
1. Loose connective tissue
 loose arrangements of fibers in the matrix
 cells (fibroblasts) are farther apart and
separated by jelly-like matrix with white
collagen fibers (for flexibility and strength)
and yellow elastic fibers (for elasticity)
 Lies beneath the epithelium of the skin and
most of the internal organs.
a. Mesenchyme
- during embryonic development; disappears
in the adult; composed of fine fibers in fluid
matrix.

b. Mucous connective tissue

- composed of large and stellate fibroblasts in
soft and jelly-like matrix with fine collagenous
fibers; umbilical cord.

c. Reticular connective tissue

- composed of stellate cells in matrix with
reticular fibers; lymphoid organs, bone
marrow, liver.
d. Areolar connective tissue
- composed of round/oval cells in matrix
with collagen and elastic fibers;
mesenteries, omentum of alimentary
canal, subcutaneous tissue, submucosa of
digestive tract.

e. Adipose connective tissue

- no formationof matrix; storage of fats;
composed f globular with nuclei
compressed in the peripheral rim of
cytoplasm.
Loose Connective Tissue
(Areolar)
2. Dense (fibrous) connective tissue
 Contains many collagen fibers that are packed
closely together
 More specific functions in vertebrates than loose
connective tissues
 With less amorphous ground substance
a. Irregular arranged dense connective tissue
- occurs in sheets; with coarse, tough network of
fibers; dermis of skin, cartilage, fascia
b. Regular arranged dense connective tissue
- with densely packed fibers parallel to each other,
tendon, ligaments, aponueroses
Dense Regular Connective
Tissue
3. Specialized connective tissue
a. Cartilages
 Skeleton during embryonic stage composed of dells
(chondrocytes) located in small spaces called lacunae
with collagenous or elastic fibers.
b. Bones or osseous tissues
 Rigid form of connective tissue; comprises most of
the skeleton in higher vertebrates; composed of cells
(osteocytes) located in small cavities (lacunae) of
calcified matrix; radiating from each lacuna are
narrow channels (canaliculi) which penetrate adjacent
canaliculi of neighboring lacunae forming lamallar
structure.
c. Hemopoietic tissue
 formation and maturation of blood cells;
lymphoid tissue- located in the lymph
nodes, liver ands spleen; forms
lymphocytes and monocytes; myeloid
tissue- located in bone marrow; forms
erythrocytes and granulocytes.
d. Blood
 Composed of blood cells (erythrocytes,
leukocytes and thrombocytes) and a fluid
intercelluler substance (plasma).
 Hyaline Cartilage X 200 White Fibrous Connective Tissue X 200

Bone, dry ground human c.s. X 100 Human Blood, Wright Stain X 1000
 Muscle Tissue
 For contraction to produce movement
 Cell (muscle fiber) is enclosed by
sarcolemma and contains sarcoplasm
where the contractile elements
(myofibrils) are located
 Types as to Structurre and
Function
1. Smooth involuntary muscle tissue
 also called visceral muscle
 Composed of elongated cells within tapered
ends (fusiform)
 Contains homogenous or clear sarcoplasm and
centrally located nucleus
 Found in internal organs which bring about
involuntary movement in these organs
2. Striated voluntary muscle tissue
 Also called skeletal muscle
 Composed of long, cylindrical cells (filamentous)
 Contains thin and transparent sarcolemma
 Sarcoplasm contains parallel rows of myofibrils
with alternating light (l band) and dark bands
(A-band) forming striations
 Multinucleated
 Found attached to the skeleton responsible for
the voluntary movement of the body
3. Striated involuntary muscle tissue
 Also called cardiac muscle
 Composed of linear branching bundles of
fibers joined end to end by the intercalated
disc
 With elongated nucleus centrally located
between diverging cells
 Found in the walls of the heart bring about
the involuntary contraction of the organ
Smooth Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
 Nervous tissue
 For reception of stimuli and transmission
of impulses
 Consists of neuroglia and neurons

Motor Neuron X 200

 Nueroglia
 Supporting cells for the nourishment,
protection and insulation of the neurons
 Undergo cell division, thus may cause brain
tumor
 Types of Neuroglia:

 Astrocytes
 Star-shaped neuroglia located between
neurons and capillaries
 Microglia
 Phagocytes, dispose dead cells of the system
Ependymal cells
 Line the fluid –filled cavities of the central
nervous system
Oligodendrocytes
 Form the myelin sheath aroung the fibers
 Schwann cells and satellite cells
 Neurons
 Made up of cell body (perikaryon) and
one or more protoplasmic processses
( axon and dendrites)
 Do not undergo cell division
 Responsible for reception of stimuli and
transmission of impulses
 Types as to number of
protoplasmic processes
1. Unipolar neuron
 With only one protoplasmic process, found in
dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord.
2. Bipolar neuron
 With two protoplasmic processes (axon and
dendrites); found in the retina of the eye.
3. Multipolar neuron
 With several dendrites and one axon; found in
ventral horns of the gray matter of the spinal
cord.
 Types as to Function
 Sensory neuron
 Transmit impulses from sensory receptors of
the sense organ to nerve center (CNS)
 Motor neuron
 Transmit impulses from the nerve to the
effectors (muscle or glands)
 Adjustor or associative neuron (interneuron)
 Connects sensory and motor neurons; located
in the nerve center.
End of presentation
Prepared by:
CHRISTINE O. NAPOLES
BS BIOLOGY 1-A