Wave Propagation & Antennas

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 Detect-to-Engage
Neutralize

Detect Localize Classify Track Weapon

Selection

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• Apply the relationship between Frequency, Wavelength & the Speed of Wave Propagation
• Distinguish between Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction
• Solve refraction angles using Snell’s Law
• Explain the relationship between an electric field and it’s magnetic field and how because
of this relationship, electromagnetic waves propagate
• Identify the range of frequencies associated with each EM band designation
• List the wave propagation paths &the band designations associated w/ the propagation
• Solve for the radar horizon using the height relationship between the target and sensor
• Explain how the elementary dipole antenna transmits electromagnetic waves.
• Calculate optimum antenna height for a given frequency both grounded & ungrounded.
• Identify the two types of antenna polarization.
• Interpret the beam power distribution pattern for a single dipole antenna and a linear
antenna array (broadside and end fire).
• Describe how quasi-optical systems increase antenna directivity.

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• The beginning of today’s lecture should be a
review of core Physics you all took
– Hang in there
• We use the building block of how waves move
to learn about sending and receiving signals
through antenna
– Will lead into our RADAR discussion on Friday

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 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
Two Types of Waves:
• Mechanical: Requires medium for propagation (SONAR)
• Electromagnetic: Requires no medium for propagation (RADAR)
Two Types of Motion:
• Longitudinal: Motion of medium moves from left to right

• Transverse: Motion of medium moves up and down

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Frequency (f ): Rate at which source disturbance oscillates
through one complete cycle (Hertz or 1/sec )

Wavelength (λ): Distance between two identical points on

adjacent waves or distance traveled by wave in one cycle. (cm,
mm, m)

Velocity (c): Speed that wave travels,

(EM in vacuum, c =3 x 108 m/s) Appendix Page 2
Amplitude (a): Maximum displacement of wave from zero
Period (T): Time to complete one cycle (time, sec)

T = 1/f Appendix Page 4 c=λf 6

Spherical Wave
• Undisturbed wave
• Omni directional from source
• Ripples on a pond.

Plane Wave
• Far from origin
• Spreads out to appear to have same amplitude
everywhere on plane perpendicular to direction of travel
• Think of entire wave traveling in one direction

Ray: The path of a hypothetical point on a wave as it moves through a medium.

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Media boundaries w/ dissimilar propagation speeds result in reflection
• Specular Reflection: smooth surface reflects at equal but opposite angle
• Diffuse Reflection: irregular surface reflects over a broad range of angles

Specular Diffuse

Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection 8

Bending of EM ray when it transmits from one medium to another
• Not all of wave is reflected
• Some is transmitted into medium interface at some angle
• The angle can be determined using Snell’s Law:
Appendix Page 4
n1 sinq1 = n2 sinq2

Waves are Lazy – bend more

towards medium with higher index
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of refraction
Refraction Index:
n = c0/c

• c0 = speed of light (in vacuum)

• c = speed of light (in medium)
• c =fλ

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The appearance of wave bending around an object because of
different speeds of wavelet at medium interface. Can detect signals
in spite of LOS limitations.

Opening size effects the degree Electromagnetic waves diffracting

by which the wave will spread Around a barrier
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 Spreading – Initial energy distributed over an
increasingly larger area.
SA  4r 2
Appendix Page 3

Scattering - Energy bouncing off suspended

particles within a medium. Scattering is particulate
size/radar frequency dependent. Negligible.

Absorption - Energy dissipated into medium.

Molecules of medium absorb some of the energy as
it passes through. Negligible.
*Spreading, Scattering, Absorption losses = ATTENUATION
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Attenuation Increases as Frequency Increases 14
 MODES OF PROPAGATION
Ground Waves (<3MHz): Vertically
polarized waves, travel between
ground and ionosphere
• Very Long Range
• ELF, VLF, LF, MF

Sky Waves (3-30MHz): Waves refracted

back to the earth by the Ionosphere
• Changes night/day due to atmospheric
conditions
• HF
Space Waves (>30MHz): Signals are not
refracted by Ionosphere.
• Also Short Range Comms
• VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF 15
 THE EM ROADMAP
Frequency Band Range (nm) Power Rate
30-300 GHz EHF Attenuation 100 Mbps

Short Range (Tactical)

susceptible

Space Waves
3-30 GHz SHF 40 (G/ LOS) 250 kbps
100-300 (Tropo)
P/G limit (Satellite)
300-3000 MHz UHF 15-100 (LOS) 10-100 W 56 kbps
300 (LOS Air) 2500-10000 W
1000s (Satellite)
30-300 MHz VHF 25-50 (G) .25-120 W 75 baud
LOS (D) 9600 bps
3-30 MHz HF 30-300 (G) 2-100 kW 2400 bps Sky Long
Span Globe (S) Wave Range

Ground Waves
300-3000 kHz MF 100-1000 (G) 75 baud

Very Long Range

1000-3000 (S)

(Strategic)
30-300 kHz LF 1000-5000 50-100 kW 75 baud

3-30 kHz VLF 5000+ 100-200 kW 50 baud

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3-30 Hz ELF 5000+ 100 MW 1-2
 The max line-of-sight distance of a target from a detector
at heights ht (target) and hr (detector/receiver).
Appendix Page 5
Radio waves bend

hr 𝑹𝑳𝑶𝑺−𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒓 = 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒕 + 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒓 ht

Optical waves don’t bend (much)

hr ht
𝑹𝑳𝑶𝑺−𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟑𝒉𝒕 + 𝟏𝟑𝒉𝒓
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NOTE: Height in meters, distance in kilometers
EM Characteristics:
• Transverse
• No Medium

Accelerated Charged Particles:

• Electric field induces a magnetic field
• Magnetic field induces an electric field
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Electromagnetic
 • Time Varying Electric (E) field induces a Magnetic (B) field
• Time Varying Magnetic (B) field induces an Electric (E) field
• Electric Field is aligned with
• Fields are perpendicular to each other
• Optimum dipole length for Free Space antenna is /2
• Optimum length for Grounded antenna is /4 (reflection from ground). 19
Linear Circular

Antenna is said to be polarized in the direction of the electric field.

Note: For the most efficient communication, transmit and
receive antennas should have the same polarization. 20
Find the optimum antenna size for a ground-plane (i.e. quarter-wave) dipole
used to broadcast commercial radio (Approximately 1MHz).

f = 1 MHz Page 4 - Appendix

 = c/f = 3x108 m/s / 1x106 1/s = 300m

Optimum antenna height for a ground-plane dipole antenna = /4

Therefore… h = 300/4 = 75 m

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 Energy radiates out the sides most strongly at the perpendicular, and
decreases in intensity such that no energy comes out the ends.

Dipole antennas do not transmit or receive energy out their ends

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 Directionality allows us to be more efficient with our energy
(send it where we want it to go)

Directionality
No
Directionality

• Antenna Arrays
Two ways to achieve Directionality:
• Quasi-Optical Reflectors 24
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Two types:
• Parasitic Element • Parabolic Reflector

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• Driven element’s radiation induces a
voltage in the parasitic element.
• Parasitic voltage produces constructive
and destructive interference that provides
more power to the opposite side

Driven
Element

More Power = Greater Range

Parasitic
Reflector
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Increased directionality is
essential to radar detection
capabilities and sonar use.

High sensitivity/high
directionality beams increase
radar detection range and
allow exploitation of weak
signals.

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Wide Beamwidth Narrow Beamwidth
– Target can maneuver – Target positional
within beam without accuracy increased
noticeable bearing/alt dramatically. Any
change. movement results in new
bearing/alt.

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 • Additional dipoles placed in an extended linear array can
narrow the EM beam in a desired direction.
• Beamwidth can be predicted theoretically:
Page 5 - Appendix

𝒌𝝀 𝒌𝝀
𝜽≅ 𝝓≅
𝑾 𝑯

Θ,𝝓 = beam width (radians)

k = Proportionality constant: depends on antenna shape and is 0.88 for linear antenna
H = overall height of array
W = overall width of array
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A narrow beam width is desirable in order to improve resolution and therefore target
identification and weapon targeting. A USMC C130 gunship requires a new targeting radar
with a 2.2 Ghz frequency to have a beam width of .005 radians.

With Beam width, θ = k*λ/W, what would be the overall

width of the linear radar antenna array?

1st: Find wavelength 𝑐 3𝑒8

𝜆= = = 0.136 𝑚
𝑓 2.2𝑒9

2nd: Apply equation for beam width 𝑘𝜆 0.88∗0.136 𝑚

𝜃= ֜ 0.005 𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝑊 𝑊

𝑊 = 24𝑚

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A view of the AN/SPN-46(V) radar antenna
for the automatic carrier landing system
(ACLS) aboard the nuclear-powered aircraft
carrier USS ABRAHAM LINCOLN (CVN-72).

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A view of the antenna array
on the island structure of
the nuclear-powered
aircraft USS THEODORE
ROOSEVELT (CVN-71).

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