Sampling : Introduction

 A sample is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from a given population.

 It refers to the technique or the procedure the

researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
 Meaning:-
 It is the aggregate of element about which we
wish to make inferences. A member of the
population is an element. It is the unit of
study.
 A part of population is known as a sample.
 The process of drawing a sample from a large
population is called sampling.
 The list of sampling unit from which a sample
is taken is called the sampling frame.
Example:-
A researcher wants to survey the brand
preference of households regarding
premium soaps in R.T. Nagar area of the
city of Bangalore.
 A house hold is the sampling unit
 The total of all households in R.T. Nagar is the
population.
 Suppose a list of households is not available,
each block may be considered as sampling unit.
 A List of such blocks will be used as the
sampling frame.
Types of Sampling :

Probability Sampling Method Non-Probability Sampling Method

Simple Random Sampling Convenience Sampling
Systematic Sampling Judgment Sampling
Stratified Sampling Quota Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Sampling and
Sampling Distribution

Module-3
Types of Sampling
Probability Sampling Methods

 It is based on the theory of probability. It is also

known as random sampling or chance sampling.
 In probability sampling every population has a
chance of being selected. Such chance is known
as probability.
 E.g. If a sampling frame is a list of 100 students of
a specific course of study, in a simple random
sample, each student has 1/100th chance of being
selected
 Probability sampling yields a representative
sample.
Simple Random Sampling
 This technique gives each element an equal &
independent chance of being selected.
 Equal probability selection method is described as
Epsem sampling.
 An independent chance means that the draw of one
element will not affect the chances of other element
being selected.
 Where some element are purposely excluded from the
sample , the resulting sample is not a random one.
Hence all the element should be included in the sample
frame to draw a random sample.
Procedure:
 Enumeration of all element in the
population.
 Drawing sample number by using :-
 Lottery method
 A table of random numbers
Lottery Method:-
 This is the simplest and most familiar procedure of
random sampling.
E.g. If a sample of 10 students is to be drawn out of 50 in a
section, Write the no’s 1-50 in a slips and pick 10 slips ,
the units bearing the numbers of slips drawn constitute
the random sample.
They are two alternatives:-
After a number is selected by draw, it may be replaced
and consequently it has a chance of being selected again.
This is referred as unrestricted random sampling.
The Selected number is set aside, & in the subsequent
draws, it does not get a chance of being selected again.
This is referred as restricted random sampling.
The table of random numbers

 To select a random sample out of a given

frame, One should start selecting the number
from a table of Random number at any
randomly selected point & with in the range of
frame.
 The table of random numbers is ideal for
obtaining a random sample from relatively
small populations. When population are quite
large say lakhs, drawing number from the table
becomes tedious.
Example:-
 Let us suppose that the random sample of 50 is to
selected from a college population of 500 commerce
students.
Sample of random numbers
100 732 225 337 762 522
374 110 248 397 284 376
084 885 997 019 028 639
090 578 445 320 001 012
128 450 780 540 444 079

All the numbers within the range of 1-500 may be picked

up for the study.
Suitability:-
 The simple random sampling is suitable only for a
small homogenous population/ group with reference to
the specified characteristics.
 Where the population is relatively small.
 Where a complete list of all elements is available or can
be prepared.
The simple random sampling is not suitable for drawing a
sample from a large heterogeneous population, as it
may not yield a representative sample of such
population.
Stratified Random Sampling
 The members of the population are first assigned to strata or
groups and simple random sample is drawn from each stratum.
 In simple words, when the population is very much heterogeneous
& it is divided into different strata on the basis of age, socio-eco
status, occupation, educational background, Residence (urban,
sub-urban, Rural) in this case stratified random sampling will be
the best choice.
 It is the process of selecting a sample in such a way that, identified
sub-group in the population are represented in the sample.
Steps for random sampling
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify the variable & sub-group (strata) for which
you want to guarantee appropriate representation.
 Classify all members of the population as member of
one of the identified sub-groups.
 Randomly select an appropriate number of individuals
from each of the sub-group.
 Example:-

Population 400
10th grade student

70-High IQ Students 260 Avg IQ Students 70 Low IQ Students

30 High IQ boys 40 High IQ girls

Randomly Selected

15 High IQ boys & girls

Need for Stratification
 Increasing a sample’s statistical efficiency
 Providing adequate data for analyzing the
various sub-population.
 Stratification is essential when the researcher
wants to study the characteristics of population
sub-group.
Suitability:- is appropriate for a large
heterogeneous population
Systematic Sampling
 This method of sampling is an alternative to random
sampling. It consists of taking every k th item in the
population after a random start with an item from 1 to
k.
 E. g. suppose it is desired to select a sample of 20
students, from a list of 300 students , divide the
population total of 300 by 20, the quotient is 15.
select a number at random between 1 & 15, using
lottery method. Suppose the selected number is 9, then
the students numbered 9 , 24(9+15), 39 (24+15),
54(39+15), 69,84….. Are selected as sample.
Cluster Sampling
 Divide the entire population into clusters and select entire groups
or clusters at random to collect information from these clusters or
groups.

 E.g. Suppose a researcher wants to select a random sample of 1000

households out of 40000 estimated households in a city for a
survey. A direct sample of individual household would be difficult
to select , because a list of households does not exist and would be
to costly to prepare.
 Instead he can select a random sample of a few blocks/wards. The
no of blocks to be selected depends upon the average no of
estimated households per block. Suppose the average no of
households per block is 200, then 5 blocks comprises the sample,
& from each sample blocks a certain number of households may
be selected by systematic sampling.
Some illustration of cluster are:

Population Elements Cluster or sampling

unit
City Households Blocks

City Individuals Households

Affiliating UNIV Students Affiliated Colleges

Rural areas Households Villages

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

The probability of inclusion of any unit

(of population) in a sample is not known. It
involve human judgment rather than
pure chance. The degree of accuracy is
also unknown.
Contd:-
 Convenience Sampling : The selection of the sample is left to the
researcher who is to select the sample unit in a just ‘hit and miss
‘fashion. Most suitable in ‘exploratory research’.
E.g. Interviewing the people whom we happen to meet.

 Judgment Sampling :This involves selection of cases which we

judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based
on the judgment of the researcher and some experts. It does not
aim at securing a cross section of the population.

 Quota Sampling : The population is stratified on the basis of age,

sex, income, family size etc. More often compounded stratification
is used in groups with gender.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

 Goal Orientation
 Measurability
 Usability
 Cost Factor
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Starting from data collection to inferring results, two kinds of errors
may come:
 Sampling Errors : arise due to studying only a part of the total
population. These may arise due to non-representative ness of the
sample and the inadequacy of sample size.
 When several samples are drawn from a population, their results
would not be identical. The degree of variation of sample result is
known as standard error
 Non-Sampling Errors : arise due to technically faulty observation or
calculations during the processing of data.
 Methods of data collection
 Incomplete coverage of the population
 Inaccurate information provided by the participants
 Error during tabulation, editing etc.
Concept of measurement & Scaling
 Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers
to empirical events in compliance with a set of rules.
The definition implies the measurement in three part
process:-
 Selecting observable empirical events.
 Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for
assigning numbers to represent aspects of the event
being measured.
 Applying the mapping rule to each observation of that
event.
Example:

(1) Do you feel respected by your colleagues/ coworkers?

 Very desirable 5 4 3 2 1 Very undesirable

Sample element :- Colleagues/ Co-workers or Individuals

Empirical Observation :- Respected
Mapping rules :- Rating Scale

(2) Is there employee turnover in your organization?

 (a) Yes b) No
Types of measurement data
Types of Characteristics of data Basic empirical Examples
data operation
Nominal Classification but no Determination of Genders,
order, distance or equality
origin
Ordinal Classification & order Determination of Superior to,
but no distance or greater or lesser happier than,
unique origin value poorer than
Interval Classification order & Determination of Temperature in
distance but no unique equality of degrees
origin intervals or
differences
Ratio Classification order Determination of Areas, distance,
distance & unique Equality of ratio number of
origin
customers,
costs, age
Characteristics of sound measurement
Validity :- refers to the extend to which a test
measures what we actually wish to measure.

Reliability :- has to do with the accuracy and

precision of a measurement procedure.

Practicality :- is concerned with a wide range of

factors of economy, convenience, and
interpretability.
What is Scaling?
Scaling :-
is a procedure for the assigning of numbers to
indicants of the properties of objects.
Types of Response Scales:-
 Rating Scales
 Ranking Scales
Contd:-
 Rating Scales :- is used when respondents score an
object without making any comparison to other object.

 Ranking Scales :- constraints the study

participants to make comparison among two or more
indicants or objects .
Types of Rating Scales
 Simple category
 Multiple choice :single response
 Multiple choice :multiple response
 Likert scale
 Semantic differential
 Numerical
 Multiple rating
 Graphic rating
Types of Ranking Scales
 Paired-comparison

 Forced Ranking

 Comparative
Types of Rating Scales:

Simple category : also called dichotomous scale.

It offers two mutually exclusive response choice. They
are yes & no, agree & disagree etc

E.g. Does compensation leads to motivation directly?

(a) Yes b) No
Contd:-

Multiple choice single response / multiple

response: Allows the rater to select one or several
alternatives.

E.g. What sort of non-monetary benefits would you prefer

in your Company?
a) Training facilities d) Flexible work hours
b) Rewards for referrals e) Overseas assignment
c) Gifting of leave f) Recognitions
Contd:-
 Likert scale :- The Likert Scales consists of a number of
statements which either a favorable or unfavorable attitude
towards the given object to which the respondent is asked to
react.

E.g. An advertisement helps my decision in choosing the brand?

Strongly Agree [ ]
Moderately Agree [ ]
Neither Agree nor Disagree [ ]
Moderately Disagree [ ]
Strongly Disagree [ ]
Contd:-
 Semantic differential :- This method consists of a
set of bipolar rating scale, usually with seven points, by
which one or more respondents rate one or more
concept on scale item.

E.g. Other than brand attributes like quality, value for

money, how much do you think celebrity endorsement
is important?
Most important :_: _ :_ :_ :_ :_ :_ : Not at all important
Severe :_: _ :_ :_ :_ :_ :_ : Lenient
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
Contd:-
 Numerical Scales :- are 5-points scale. The
respondent writes a number from the scale next to
each item.

E.g. Do you receive timely information relating to your work?

5 4 3 2 1
Contd:-
 Multiple rating Scale:- is similar to the numerical
scale but differs in two ways:
1) It accepts a circled response from the rater
2) The layout allows visualization of the results.
E.g. “Please indicate how important or unimportant each
service characteristic is.”
Important unimportant
Fast reliable repair 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Services at my location 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Knowledgeable technicians 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contd:-
Graphic rating Scale:- This scale uses pictures, icons,
other visuals to communicate with the rater and
represent a variety of data types.
E.g. “How likely are you to recommend complete care to
others ?” ( place an x at the position along the line that
best reflects your judgment )

Very likely _____________________ Very Unlikely

Types of Ranking Scales
Paired-comparison Scale :- the respondents can
express attitude unambiguously by choosing between
two objects.
E.g. For each pair of sports car listed, place a check
beside the one you would prefer if you had to choose
between the two.
a)________ BMW Z3 ________ Chevrolet
b)________Porsche Boxster ________ PorschBoxster
Forced ranking scale
 This method is faster than paired comparisons and is usually
easier and more motivating to the respondents. In this scale
attributes are given/listed, respondents are asked to rank relative
to each other.
E.g. Acc to your preference rank the folg non-monetary
benefits provided in your Company?
 a) Training facilities d) Flexible work hours
 b) Rewards for referrals e) Overseas assignment
 c) Gifting of leave f) Recognitions
Comparative Scales:-
Is ideal for comparison of attributes using ranking scale,
if the respondents are familiar with the standard.

E.g. “Compared to your previous mutual fund’s

performance, the new one is.”
Superior Same Inferior
_____ _____ ____ ____ _____
1 2 3 4 5
Scale Design Techniques
 Arbitrary scaling :- A scale is custom-designed to
measure a property or indicant.
 Consensus scaling :- Requires items to be selected
by a panel of judges and then evaluated.
 Item Analysis scaling :- is a procedure for
evaluating an item based on how well it discriminates
between those person. The most popular scale using
this approach is Likert scale.
 Cumulative scaling :- Scales are chosen for their
conformity to a ranking of items with ascending and
descending discriminating power.