DEEP FOUNDATIONS

D. A. Cameron
Rock and Soil Mechanics 2006
NOTE: all photos are from UC at Davis
http://cgpr.ce.vt.edu/photo_album_for_geotech/GeoPhoto.html

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 Why go deep?
[A] Near surface soils inadequate
• weak relative to applied loads
• erodible
− watercourses, scour of soil

[B] Load orientation

• lateral loading – raked piles
• uplift loading - anchors

[C] Settlement concerns

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 Types of Deep Foundations
Deep foundations usually L/B > 5
L = pile length, B = dia. or breadth of pile

1. Driven Piles
MATERIALS
- wood, precast concrete, steel
SECTIONS
- octagons, solid circles, rings, H-sections
LIMITATIONS
Vibrations due to driving? Head room?

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 DRIVEN
PILING

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 Types of Deep Foundations

2. Bored Concrete Piles

• Large diameter?
• Increased base diameter?
– underreamed
• Excavation support?
– Bentonite slurry
• Limited practical depth
• Soil restrictions
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 Bored Pile
1. Shaft

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 2. Base enlargement tool

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 3. Reo cage

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 4. Concreting/ bentonite slurry displacement

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 Bentonite slurry

Weak soil, Concrete

high WT displaces
fluid

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 Types of Deep Foundations

3. Other
• Driven cast in-situ piles
– driven tube pile, filled with concrete
• Continuous flight augur piles
– hollow augur string
– concrete slurry inserted through tip as
string withdrawn
• Etc, etc,etc

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 Cast in-situ piling

Reference http://www.keller-ge.co.uk/index.html

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 Dry mix
concrete plug
can be used
in place of
steel cap

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 Casing may be withdrawn

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 PILE LOAD CAPACITY

Capacity dependent on construction

• relaxation of field soil stresses?
− less contact with side soil, less support
• Bentonite slurry used?
− slippery side contact (smeared)

Stress relaxation expected for

DISPLACEMENT PILES

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 NON-DISPLACEMENT PILE
Soil is removed
• The excavation may or may not be
supported

DISPLACEMENT PILE
Soil is ‘displaced’ within the adjoining
soil mass
• Displaced volume  pile volume

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 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR PILING

1. Soil strength and stiffness

2. Soil chemical analysis  corrosion
3. Possible obstructions to installation
4. Potential for damage to adjoining
structure due to “ground heave”
5. Vibrations

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 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR PILING

After-construction effects of:

1. Expansive soil (next semester)

2. Negative friction / downdrag
3. Slope instability

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 PILES - design
1. Geotechnical
- strength and stiffness 
“serviceability”
2. Pile structural strength
3. Pile material “durability”

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 GEOTECHNICAL STRENGTH

Vertical compression loading:

ULTIMATE GEOTECHNICAL STRENGTH

- or capacity, Rug

R ug  f s A s  f b A b

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 fs = average, fully mobilized, “skin friction”
(= INTERFACE friction and adhesion)
fb = ultimate base bearing pressure

Dependent upon –
SOIL TYPE
SOIL PROFILE
PILE MATERIAL
INSTALLATION

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 Low load Ultimate load

fs =  max
fs =  max

for the
full
fs <<  max
length

Base resistance,
fb, mobilized
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 Calculations

Circular pile, length, L:

Rug = fs(Dl) + fb(Db2/4)

where Db = diameter of base

Note 1: fs may vary down the shaft

(add contributions)

Note 2: fb only at base

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 Design geotechnical strength, Rg*

Rg* = Фg Rug > S*

(design action effect)

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 Reduction factor Фg
on Geotechnical Strength
How good are the soil / pile data?
 Have piles been proof loaded?
 Is design based on site investigation?
“Static analysis”
 Is design based on driving instrumented
piles? “Dynamic pile testing”
 Is design based on driving records?
“Dynamic analysis”

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 Reduction factor Фg
Pile load testing 0.7 to 0.9

Static analysis 0.4 to 0.65

Dynamic load testing 0.5 to 0.85

Dynamic analysis* 0.45 to 0.65

*caution on clay sites

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 The equivalent factor of safety is usually
between 2 and 2.5 for static analysis
based on
good soil data

and site investigation

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 STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
Reduction factor, Фs
Concrete - from AS3600
Grout - from AS3600 and x reduction factor
Steel - from AS4100
Timber - compression 0.85
- tension 0.7
- bending 1

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 1. CLEAN SANDS -  only

The skin friction term

f s  (K s σ v o )  tan δ 

(LATERAL STRESS) x FRICTION COEFFICIENT

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 KULHAWY (1984) – sand parameters

Pile Type Ks 
Ko 

Bored piles 0.7 to 1 1

Displacement see below

piles
- precast concrete 0.75 to 2 0.8 to 1

- smooth steel 0.75 to 2 0.5 to 0.7

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 END BEARING, fb

Analogous to the surcharge term in

bearing capacity analysis

f b  (σvbo ) N q 

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 Nq for Piles in Sand

Nq = fn (density & method of construction)

Driven piling increases ID and , locally

[Meyerhof 1959]

NOTE: minm. penetration into bearing stratum

= 5B

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 Densification 5B Rule
CL
o = 30 B

Half
pile Layer 1

 = 47 5B

 = 34

o = 30 Layer 2
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 Nq – typical values, driven piles
[AS2159 (1978)]
Sand Density Index,
Consistency ID Nq
(%)
LOOSE 20-40% 60

MEDIUM 40-75% 100

DENSE

DENSE 75-90% 180

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 Limiting (maximum) values of
fs and fb for sands

fs max = 110 kPa

fb max = 15 MPa

After Tomlinson 1995

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 CLAYS, SILTS

The skin friction OR side shear term…

- effective stresses and drained strength?
BUT the pwp’s are uncertain
- Total stress analysis acceptable

“Adhesion” fs  Fαpcu  αpcu

since F = pile flexibility factor

and F = 1 for L/B<50
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 Generally, p = 1.0 for cu < 40 kPa

p = 0.4 for cu > 150 kPa

Otherwise, Semple + Rigden (1984):

(cu)
p
(vo)
1 < 0.35

0.5 > 0.8

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 Adhesion factors, , for
bored piles in clays:
Stiff clays  = 0.45

Stiff fissured clays fsmax  100kPa

Tomlinson (1995)

Other clays  = (p - 0.1)

Weltman & Healy
(1978)

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 End Bearing Term, fb

Total Stress Analysis of Saturated NC Clay

fb = 9cu

− Nc = 5.14

− dcNc = 8.4 for infinitely deep footing

− scdcNc = 9+ for a circular or square,

deep footing
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 PILE PARAMETERS
from CPT (field test)
CPT = Cone Penetration Test
OR electronic friction cone
- designed specifically for interpreting

pile parameters
- 36 mm diameter cone (60) is pushed into
the soil at 2 cm/sec
Þ 1.2 m in a minute

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 CPT provides a
continuous record
with time (= depth)
of qc and fsc

Sleeve
friction, fsc

Tip
resistance, qc

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 PILE PARAMETERS from CPT

(A) fs  fsc , directly from cone

Scale effect: small cone displaces less soil

 conservative for sands!

CLAY SOILS……..fs = fsc

SANDS……………fs = 2fsc

(BUT fs= fsc for H-piles)

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 PILE PARAMETERS from CPT

(B) fb measured directly  qc

Scale effect:
De Beer
Consider a loose sand overlying a dense sand
deposit

Small cone senses layer over less depth than a

large diameter pile

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 qc (MPa)

loose sand
yc

dense sand

Depth (m)

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 RAMIFICATIONS

Interpretation of CPT for fb

Various formulations exist, e.g.
CRAIG Av. qc 3B above
pile base level

AND B below

e.g. 0.4 m dia. pile founded at 10 m requires

average qc between 8.8 m and 10.4 m

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 Pile Parameters from Driving
Analysis: Hiley Formula

R(S+c/2) = Whh
R = pile resistance
S = pile set
c = temporary elastic compression
 = efficiency factor
Wh = hammer weight
h = drop height

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 Energy IN = Energy OUT

Pile head
displacement
S

Blow 1 Blow 3

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 Pile
resistance

c S Pile
displacement

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 The efficiency factor

η

k Wh  e2Wp 
Wh  Wp

Wp = pile weight
e = coefficient of ‘restitution’
k = output efficiency of the hammer

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 The Hiley Formula
• Simple expression
• Requires driving efficiency of system
• Requires simple measurement of pile
displacement near design depth, for
regulated driving energy

WARNING:
Good record in sands, not so good in clays

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 Pile Driving Analysis
The “Wave equation” / “CAPWAP”

Based on differential eqn. for the

transmission of compression waves

Measure @ pile head

 Strain => driving force
 Acceleration => velocity & displacement

Then adjust soil parameters to give best match

with output

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 The Wave Equation

Ram,
W1
Spring constant,
K, for cap block
Pile
cap, W2

R3
Pile
segments,
W3 to Wi Shear resistance
Ri

Base resistance
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 Blocks, springs and dashpots
t=0 t=1 t=2

ram a
a a

cap a
a

pile 1 a

pile 2

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 BENEFITS

• Driving stresses evaluated

• Rational selection of driving equipment
& fall heights
• Driving efficiency factors not required
− cf Hiley formula

• Pile capacity may be evaluated after

installation
− small hammer blow required

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 PILE DRIVING

Ideally: Wh = 0.5xWp to 2xWp

To avoid overstressing pile head:

- use heavier hammers, less drop
- for concrete piles, Broms suggested (1973);

σ max (MPa)  3 h e (m)

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 Pile Capacity from
Pile Driving Records

Saturated clays: pile capacity is underestimated

Why?

Capacity increases with time

Re-strike (to just move pile)

months later?

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 100
% of
long
term for
capacity
cH = 40 m2/yr
50
Poulos

t /d2 (days /m2)

0
1 10 100 1000
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 EXAMPLE

For soil with the horiz. coefficient of

consolidation cH from the previous slide,
time taken for a 400 mm diameter driven
pile (d2 = 0.16 m2) to reach 75% of the
long term capacity will take approx.

T= 100d2, or 16 days

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 Remaining Design
Considerations

• Piles and “downdrag”

• Group action
• Settlement

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 1. PILES IN CONSOLIDATING SOIL

Adhesion factor may be negative!

CRAIG - for NC clay undergoing consolidation

f s  K s  σ' o  tan 

f s  0.25σ '
o

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 The Situation

settlement

Recent fill or
Consolidating soil

Stable Soil

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 PILE GROUPS

Group “efficiency”
Group capacity not always = (pile capacities)
RATIO of group to pile capacity = EFFICIENCY
- close spacings in loose sand are efficient
- close spacings in clay are inefficient

- “Block Action” may determine Group capacity

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 Block Action

4x4 pile group, dia. d, Block base, (3s + d)2,

spacing, s perimeter, 4(3s + d)L

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 Calculations

• Adhesion rather than cohesion for sides

• Base resistance – is L/B  5?
• For design, adopt the smaller of Group
Capacity and (pile capacities)

NOTE: unlikely to need except for

close piles in saturated clays, s < 4d

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 Settlements

Are usually small:

• Slip should be included
• Pile elastic compression can dominate

Refer: Poulos for settlement calculations

Caution: Block action of groups may stress far

deeper than any pile in the group
– greater settlements!

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 Settlements of Blocks

L
Stress
bowls

Compressible soil layer

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 PILES - SUMMARY
Pile capacity depends largely on installation

1. Single Piles (a) STATIC ANALYSIS

Sands: fsmax and fbmax

Clays - adhesion factors, p, 

- fb= 9cu

(b) CPT DATA

- better parameter evaluation

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 SUMMARY
1. Single Piles (c) Dynamic Analysis
“driving” data used
(gives capacity at the time of pile-
driving)

2. Pile Groups Block Action may

diminish capacity, AND
increase settlement

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