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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 12
The Central
Nervous
System:

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Brain Stem

• Three regions
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata

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Corpora
quadrigemina Mid-
brain

Pons
Medulla oblongata

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.12


Brain Stem

• Similar structure to spinal cord but contains


embedded nuclei
• Controls automatic behaviors necessary for
survival
• Contains fiber tracts connecting higher and
lower neural centers
• Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial
nerves

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Frontal lobe
Olfactory bulb
(synapse point of
cranial nerve I)
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve (II)
Optic tract
Mammillary body
Midbrain
Pons
Temporal lobe
Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum
Spinal cord

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.14


View (a)
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve (II)
Diencephalon
Crus cerebri of
• Thalamus cerebral peduncles
• Hypothalamus
(midbrain) Thalamus
Diencephalon
Mammillary body Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Oculomotor nerve (III)
Pons Brainstem
Trochlear nerve (IV) Medulla
oblongata
Trigeminal nerve (V)
Middle cerebellar Pons
peduncle Facial nerve (VII)
Abducens nerve (VI)
Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
nerve (VIII) Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
Pyramid
Vagus nerve (X)
Ventral root of first
cervical nerve Accessory nerve (XI)
Decussation of pyramids

Spinal cord

(a) Ventral view

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15a


Crus cerebri of
Thalamus
cerebral peduncles
(midbrain)
View (b)
Infundibulum Superior colliculus
Pituitary gland Inferior colliculus
Trochlear nerve (IV)
Trigeminal nerve (V) Superior cerebellar peduncle
Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle
Facial nerve (VII)
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Abducens nerve (VI)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Olive
Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
Thalamus
Vagus nerve (X) Hypothalamus
Diencephalon

Midbrain
Accessory nerve (XI)
Pons Brainstem
Medulla
oblongata

(b) Left lateral view

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15b


Thalamus
View (c)

Diencephalon
Midbrain
• Superior Corpora
colliculus quadrigemina
• Inferior of tectum
colliculus
Pineal gland • Trochlear nerve (IV)
• Superior cerebellar peduncle
Pons
• Middle cerebellar peduncle
Medulla oblongata
Anterior wall of • Inferior cerebellar peduncle
fourth ventricle • Facial nerve (VII)
• Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Choroid plexus • Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
(fourth ventricle) • Vagus nerve (X)
Dorsal median sulcus • Accessory nerve (XI)
Thalamus
Dorsal root of Hypothalamus
Diencephalon

first cervical nerve Midbrain


Pons Brainstem
(c) Dorsal view Medulla
oblongata

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15c


Midbrain

• Located between the diencephalon and the


pons
• Cerebral peduncles
• Contain pyramidal motor tracts
• Cerebral aqueduct
• Channel between third and fourth ventricles

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Midbrain Nuclei

• Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor) and


IV (trochlear)
• Corpora quadrigemina—domelike dorsal protrusions
• Superior colliculi—visual reflex centers
• Inferior colliculi—auditory relay centers
• Substantia nigra—functionally linked to basal nuclei
• Red nucleus—relay nuclei for some descending
motor pathways and part of reticular formation

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Dorsal Superior
Tectum
Periaqueductal gray colliculus
matter Cerebral aqueduct
Oculomotor
nucleus (III) Reticular formation
Medial
lemniscus
Red
nucleus
Substantia
nigra
Fibers of
pyramidal tract
Ventral Crus cerebri of
(a) Midbrain cerebral peduncle

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.16a


Pons

• Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle


• Fibers of the pons
• Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord
• Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the
cerebellum
• Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI (abducens),
and VII (facial)
• Some nuclei of the reticular formation
• Nuclei that help maintain normal rhythm of breathing

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Fourth
ventricle
Reticular
Superior cerebellar formation
peduncle
Trigeminal main
sensory nucleus
Trigeminal
motor nucleus
Middle
cerebellar
peduncle
Trigeminal Pontine
nerve (V) nuclei
Fibers of
Medial lemniscus pyramidal
(b) Pons tract
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.16b
Medulla Oblongata

• Joins spinal cord at foramen magnum


• Forms part of the ventral wall of the fourth
ventricle
• Contains a choroid plexus of the fourth
ventricle
• Pyramids—two ventral longitudinal ridges
formed by pyramidal tracts
• Decussation of the pyramids—crossover of
the corticospinal tracts

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View (a)
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve (II)
Diencephalon
Crus cerebri of
• Thalamus cerebral peduncles
• Hypothalamus
(midbrain) Thalamus
Diencephalon
Mammillary body Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Oculomotor nerve (III)
Pons Brainstem
Trochlear nerve (IV) Medulla
oblongata
Trigeminal nerve (V)
Middle cerebellar Pons
peduncle Facial nerve (VII)
Abducens nerve (VI)
Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
nerve (VIII) Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
Pyramid
Vagus nerve (X)
Ventral root of first
cervical nerve Accessory nerve (XI)
Decussation of pyramids

Spinal cord

(a) Ventral view

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15a


Medulla Oblongata

• Inferior olivary nuclei—relay sensory


information from muscles and joints to
cerebellum
• Cranial nerves VIII, X, and XII are associated
with the medulla
• Vestibular nuclear complex—mediates
responses that maintain equilibrium
• Several nuclei (e.g., nucleus cuneatus and
nucleus gracilis) relay sensory information

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Medulla Oblongata

• Autonomic reflex centers


• Cardiovascular center
• Cardiac center adjusts force and rate of heart
contraction
• Vasomotor center adjusts blood vessel
diameter for blood pressure regulation

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Medulla Oblongata

• Respiratory centers
• Generate respiratory rhythm
• Control rate and depth of breathing, with
pontine centers

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Medulla Oblongata

• Additional centers regulate


• Vomiting
• Hiccuping
• Swallowing
• Coughing
• Sneezing

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Fourth ventricle
Solitary
Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) Choroid
nucleus
Dorsal motor nucleus plexus Vestibular nuclear
of vagus (X) complex (VIII)
Inferior cerebellar Cochlear
peduncle nuclei (VIII)
Reticular formation

Lateral
nuclear
group Nucleus
Medial ambiguus
nuclear
group Inferior olivary
Raphe nucleus
nucleus Pyramid
Medial lemniscus
(c) Medulla oblongata

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.16c


The Cerebellum

• 11% of brain mass


• Dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Subconsciously provides precise timing and
appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle
contraction

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Anatomy of the Cerebellum

• Two hemispheres connected by vermis


• Each hemisphere has three lobes
• Anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular
• Folia—transversely oriented gyri
• Arbor vitae—distinctive treelike pattern of the
cerebellar white matter

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arbor vitae

Figure 12.17
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Anterior lobe
Cerebellar cortex
Arbor
vitae

Cerebellar
peduncles Posterior
• Superior lobe
• Middle Choroid
• Inferior plexus of
Medulla Flocculonodular fourth
oblongata lobe ventricle
(b)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.17b
Anterior
lobe

Posterior
lobe

(d) Vermis

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.17d


Cerebellar Peduncles

• All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral


• Three paired fiber tracts connect the
cerebellum to the brain stem
• Superior peduncles connect the cerebellum to
the midbrain
• Middle peduncles connect the pons to the
cerebellum
• Inferior peduncles connect the medulla to the
cerebellum

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Cerebellar Processing for Motor Activity

• Cerebellum receives impulses from the cerebral


cortex of the intent to initiate voluntary muscle
contraction (MCP)
• Signals from proprioceptors and visual and equilibrium
pathways continuously “inform” the cerebellum of the
body’s position and momentum (ICP)
• Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to smoothly
coordinate a muscle contraction
• A “blueprint” of coordinated movement is sent to the
cerebral motor cortex and to brain stem nuclei (SCP)

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Cerebellar Injuryg
• Injury to cerebellum = loss of muscle tone, and
clumsy unsure movement

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Cognitive Function of the Cerebellum

• Recognizes and predicts sequences of events


during complex movements
• Plays a role in nonmotor functions such as
word association and puzzle solving

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Functional Brain Systems

• Networks of neurons that work together and


span wide areas of the brain
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

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Limbic System

• Structures on the medial aspects of cerebral


hemispheres and diencephalon
• Includes parts of the diencephalon and some
cerebral structures that encircle the brain
stem

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Septum pellucidum Fiber tracts
connecting limbic
Diencephalic structures system structures
Corpus callosum
of the limbic system
•Fornix
•Anterior thalamic •Anterior commissure
nuclei (flanking
3rd ventricle) Cerebral struc-
tures of the
•Hypothalamus limbic system
•Mammillary
body •Cingulate gyrus
•Septal nuclei
•Amygdala
•Hippocampus
•Dentate gyrus
•Parahippocampal
gyrus
Olfactory bulb

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.18


Limbic System

• Emotional or affective brain


• Amygdala—recognizes angry or fearful facial
expressions, assesses danger, and elicits the
fear response
• Cingulate gyrus—plays a role in expressing
emotions via gestures, and resolves mental
conflict
• Puts emotional responses to odors
• Example: skunks smell bad

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Limbic System: Emotion and Cognition

• The limbic system interacts with the prefrontal


lobes, therefore:
• We can react emotionally to things we
consciously understand to be happening
• We are consciously aware of emotional
richness in our lives
• Hippocampus and amygdala—play a role in
memory

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Reticular Formation

• Three broad columns along the length of the


brain stem
• Raphe nuclei
• Medial (large cell) group of nuclei
• Lateral (small cell) group of nuclei
• Has far-flung axonal connections with
hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex,
cerebellum, and spinal cord

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Radiations
to cerebral
cortex

Visual
impulses Auditory
impulses
Reticular formation
Ascending general Descending
sensory tracts motor projections
(touch, pain, temperature) to spinal cord

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.19


Reticular Formation: RAS and Motor Function

• RAS (reticular activating system)


• Sends impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep
it conscious and alert
• Filters out repetitive and weak stimuli (~99% of
all stimuli!)
• Severe injury results in permanent
unconsciousness (coma)

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Reticular Formation: RAS and Motor Function

• Motor function
• Helps control coarse limb movements
• Reticular autonomic centers regulate visceral
motor functions
• Vasomotor
• Cardiac
• Respiratory centers

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• Records electrical activity that accompanies


brain function
• Measures electrical potential differences
between various cortical areas

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Brain Waves

• Patterns of neuronal electrical activity


• Generated by synaptic activity in the cortex
• Each person’s brain waves are unique
• Can be grouped into four classes based on
frequency

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Types of Brain Waves

• Alpha waves—regular and rhythmic, synchronous


waves indicating an “idling” brain
• Beta waves —rhythmic, less regular waves occurring
when mentally alert
• Theta waves —more irregular; common in children
and uncommon in adults
• Delta waves —seen in deep sleep and when reticular
activating system is damped, or during anesthesia;
may indicate brain damage

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1-second interval

Alpha waves—awake but relaxed

Beta waves—awake, alert

Theta waves—common in children

Delta waves—deep sleep

(b) Brain waves shown in EEGs fall into


four general classes.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.20b
Brain Waves: State of the Brain

• Change with age, sensory stimuli, brain


disease, and the chemical state of the body
• EEGs used to diagnose and localize brain
lesions, tumors, infarcts, infections,
abscesses, and epileptic lesions
• A flat EEG (no electrical activity) is clinical
evidence of death

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Epilepsy

• A victim of epilepsy may lose consciousness,


fall stiffly, and have uncontrollable jerking
• Epilepsy is not associated with intellectual
impairments
• Epilepsy occurs in 1% of the population

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Epileptic Seizures

• Absence seizures, or petit mal


• Mild seizures seen in young children where the
expression goes blank
• Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures
• Victim loses consciousness, bones are often
broken due to intense contractions, may
experience loss of bowel and bladder control,
and severe biting of the tongue

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Control of Epilepsy

• Anticonvulsive drugs
• Vagus nerve stimulators implanted under the
skin of the chest can keep electrical activity of
the brain from becoming chaotic

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Consciousness

• Conscious perception of sensation


• Voluntary initiation and control of movement
• Capabilities associated with higher mental
processing (memory, logic, judgment, etc.)
• Loss of consciousness (e.g., fainting or
syncopy) is a signal that brain function is
impaired

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Consciousness

• Clinically defined on a continuum that grades


behavior in response to stimuli
• Alertness
• Drowsiness (lethargy)
• Stupor
• Coma

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Sleep

• State of partial unconsciousness from which a


person can be aroused by stimulation
• Two major types of sleep (defined by EEG
patterns)
• Nonrapid eye movement (NREM)
• Rapid eye movement (REM)

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Awake
REM
Stage 1
Stage 2
Non
REM Stage 3
Stage 4

Time (hrs)
(b) Typical progression of an adult through one
night’s sleep stages

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.21b


Importance of Sleep

• Slow-wave sleep (NREM stages 3 and 4) is


presumed to be the restorative stage
• People deprived of REM sleep become moody and
depressed
• REM sleep may be a reverse learning process where
superfluous information is purged from the brain
• Daily sleep requirements decline with age
• Stage 4 sleep declines steadily and may disappear
after age 60

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Sleep Disorders

• Narcolepsy
• Lapsing abruptly into sleep from the awake
state
• Insomnia
• Chronic inability to obtain the amount or quality
of sleep needed
• Sleep apnea
• Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep

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Language

• Language implementation system


• Basal nuclei
• Broca’s area (lesions - understand but can’t speak) and Wernicke’s
area (lesions - speak nonsense and but can’t understand )
(in the association cortex on the left side)
• Analyzes incoming word sounds
• Produces outgoing word sounds and grammatical
structures
• Corresponding areas on the right side are
involved with nonverbal language components

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Memory

• Storage and retrieval of information


• Two stages of storage
• Short-term memory (STM, or working memory)
—temporary holding of information; limited to
seven or eight pieces of information
• Long-term memory (LTM) has limitless
capacity

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Outside stimuli

General and special sensory receptors

Afferent inputs

Temporary storage
Data permanently
(buffer) in
lost
cerebral cortex

Data selected
Automatic
for transfer Forget
memory

Short-term
memory (STM) Forget

Data transfer
influenced by:
Retrieval Excitement
Rehearsal
Association of
old and new data

Long-term
memory
(LTM) Data unretrievable

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.22


Transfer from STM to LTM

• Factors that affect transfer from STM to LTM


• Emotional state—best if alert, motivated,
surprised, and aroused
• Rehearsal—repetition and practice
• Association—tying new information with old
memories
• Automatic memory—subconscious information
stored in LTM

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Categories of Memory

1. Declarative memory (factual knowledge)


• Explicit information
• Related to our conscious thoughts and our
language ability
• Stored in LTM with context in which it was
learned

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Categories of Memory

2. Nondeclarative memory
• Less conscious or unconscious
• Acquired through experience and repetition
• Best remembered by doing; hard to unlearn
• Includes procedural (skills) memory, motor
memory, and emotional memory

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Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain

• Traumatic brain injuries


• Concussion—temporary alteration in function
• Contusion—permanent damage
• Subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage—may
force brain stem through the foramen
magnum, resulting in death
• Cerebral edema—swelling of the brain
associated with traumatic head injury

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Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain

• Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs)(strokes) 3rd leading cause of death

• Blood circulation is blocked and brain tissue dies, e.g.,


blockage of a cerebral artery by a blood clot
• Typically leads to hemiplegia, or sensory and speed
deficits
• Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)—temporary
episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia (deprivation of blood supply to any tissue)

• Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) is the only


approved treatment for stroke

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Stroke Symptoms

The symptoms of stroke are distinct because


they happen quickly:
• Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm, or leg
(especially on one side of the body)
• Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding
speech
• Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes
• Sudden trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance or
coordination
• Sudden severe headache with no known cause

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Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain

• Degenerative brain disorders


• Alzheimer’s disease (AD): a progressive degenerative
disease of the brain that results in dementia
• Parkinson’s disease: degeneration of the dopamine-
releasing neurons of the substantia nigra
• Huntington’s disease: a fatal hereditary disorder
caused by accumulation of the protein huntingtin that
leads to degeneration of the basal nuclei and cerebral
cortex

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