Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
How many solar panels you will need based on the
amount of sunshine available daily in your area
Using solar power to produce electricity is not the same
as using solar to produce heat. Solar thermal principles It is presumed that at "peak sun", J of power
are applied to produce hot fluids or air. reaches the surface of the earth.
Photovoltaic principles are used to produce electricity. A One hour of full sun provides J J
solar panel (PV panel) is made of the natural element, -representing the solar energy received in one
silicon, which becomes charged electrically when hour on a cloudless summer day on a one-square meter
subjected to sun light. surface directed towards the sun.
Solar panels are directed at solar south in the northern To put this in some other perspective, the Indian
hemisphere and solar north in the southern hemisphere Department of Energy indicates the amount of solar
(these are slightly different than magnetic compass energy that hits the surface of the earth every +/- hour is
north-south directions) at an angle dictated by the greater than the total amount of energy that the entire
geographic location and latitude of where they are to be human population requires in a year. Another
installed. perspective is that roughly 100 miles square of solar
panels placed in the southwestern U.S. could power the
Typically, the angle of the solar array is set within a country.
range of between site-latitude-plus 15 degrees and site-
latitude-minus 15 degrees, depending on whether a The intensity of the Sun's radiation changes with the
slight winter or summer bias is desirable in the system. hour of the day, time of the year and weather conditions.
To be able to make calculations in planning a system,
Many solar arrays are placed at an angle equal to the the total amount of solar radiation energy is expressed in
site latitude with no bias for seasonal periods. hours of full sunlight per m², or Peak Sun Hours. This
term, Peak Sun Hours, represents the average amount
of sun available per day throughout the year.
Electrical charge is consolidated in the PV panel and directed to the output terminals to produce low
voltage (Direct Current) - usually 6 to 24 volts. The most common output is intended for nominal 12
volts, with an effective output usually up to 17 volts.
A 12 volt nominal output is the reference voltage, but the operating voltage can be 17 volts or higher
much like your car alternator charges your 12 volt battery at well over 12 volts. So there's a difference
between the reference voltage and the actual operating voltage.
"# !
A. PV technology produces electricity directly from electrons freed by the interaction of
sunlight with a solar panel made of semiconductor material. The power provided is
direct current (DC) electricity. The basic building block is known as a cell. Many cells
put together are known as a module, and many modules assembled together form an
array. A PV system will consist of an array of modules generating DC electricity, an
inverter, and sometimes battery storage back up with charge controller.
"# !!
# The amount of power produced will depend upon how large the system is. In California
the average residential customer purchases 6,500 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year.
There is enough sunshine falling upon on the average home to produce this and a
system can be designed to offset all electrical needs. The cost to accomplish a 100%
system may be prohibitive and sometimes it makes more sense to simply reduce or
'shave' your consumption. Some utilities use tiered rates when they charge for
consumption which means that the more energy you use the higher is the cost per
kilo-watt-hour. The most economically feasible size is usually between 50% and 75%
of your annual household needs.
At today's prices a single solar panel, rated at 1 Watts sells for about Rs.250-
Rs.350 depending on brand.
If your system uses several of these panels, this would seem to be quite
expensive.
The good news is that today's solar panels have a life expectancy of 25 to 30
years or more. And just think, they'll be making FREE electricity that whole time!
$
% | % !
Understanding Parts of a Solar Energy System Overview of the individual components required
to assemble a solar power system and produce free electricity from the sun for energy
independence.
For electricity from the sun. You will need one or more
Solar Panels, a Charger Controller, a Power Inverter,
and of course, Batteries.
)
Even the largest Solar Energy System would not have
enough power for many consecutive days of no sun. The
AC Generator tutorial will tell you what size generator you'll
need
Solar panels generate free power from the sun by converting sunlight to electricity with no moving
parts, zero emissions, and no maintenance. The solar panel, the first component of a electric solar
energy system, is a collection of individual silicon cells that generate electricity from sunlight. The
photons (light particles) produce an electrical current as they strike the surface of the thin silicon
wafers.
A single solar cell produces only about 1/2 (.5) of a volt. However, a typical 12 volt panel about 25
inches by 54 inches will contain 36 cells wired in series to produce about 17 volts peak output.
If the solar panel can be configured for 24 volt output, there will be 72 cells so the two 12 volt groups
of 36 each can be wired in series, usually with a jumper, allowing the solar panel to output 24 volts.
When under load (charging batteries for example), this voltage drops to 12 to 14 volts (for a 12 volt
configuration) resulting in 75 to 100 watts for a panel of this size.
Multiple solar panels can be wired in parallel to increase current capacity (more power) and wired in
series to increase voltage for 24, 48, or even higher voltage systems. The advantage of using a higher
voltage output at the solar panels is that smaller wire sizes can be used to transfer the electric power
from the solar panel array to the charge controller & batteries. Since copper has gone up considerably
in the last few years, purchasing large copper wiring and cables is quite expensive. (that's why
pennies are made of mostly zinc today).
The output of a solar panel is usually stated Since the intensity of sunlight contacting
in watts, and the wattage is determined by the solar panel varies throughout the day,
multiplying the rated voltage by the rated we use the term "peak sun hours³ as a
amperage. method to smooth out the variations into a
daily average
The formula for wattage is VOLTS times
AMPS equals WATTS. Early morning and late-in-the-day sunlight
produces less power than the mid-day sun.
So for example, a 12 volt 60 watt solar panel Naturally, cloudy days will produce less
measuring about 20 X 44 inches has a rated power than bright sunny days as well.
voltage of 17.1 and a rated 3.5 amperage.
When planning a system your
VxA=W geographical area is rated in average peak
17.1 volts times 3.5 amps equals 60 watts sun hours per day based on yearly sun
data.
If an average of 6 hours of peak sun per day Average peak sun hours for various
is available in an area, then the above solar geographical areas is listed in the above
panel can produce an average 360 watt section.
hours of power per day; 60w times 6 hrs. =
360 watt-hours.
|
Solar panels can be wired in series or in parallel to increase
voltage or amperage respectively, and they can be wired
both in series and in parallel to increase both volts and
amps.
Where a building is at a considerable distance from the public electricity supply (or grid)
- in remote or mountainous areas ± PV may be the preferred possibility for generating
electricity, or PV may be used together with wind, diesel generators and/or
hydroelectric power. In such off-grid circumstances batteries are usually used
to store the electric power.
In locations near the grid, however, feeding the grid using PV panels is more practical,
and leads to optimum use of the investment in the photovoltaic system. This requires
both regulatory and commercial preparation, including net-metering and feed-in
agreements. To provide for possible power failure, some grid tied systems are set up to
allow local use disconnected from the grid. Most photovoltaics are grid connected. In
the event the grid fails, the local system must not feed the grid to prevent the possible
creation of dangerous islanding.
When deciding on a location for your solar As previously discussed, you want to mount
panels, make sure no shadows will fall on the solar panels in a sunny and non-shaded location
solar panel array during peak sunlight hours to get maximum sun. But, heat build-up is also a
(say, 9am to 4pm). Not only will shading of the problem. Because the efficiency of solar panels
solar panels significantly reduce their output, but decreases as temperature increases, the solar
also could cause damage. Some solar panel panel mounting system should allow for spacing
manufacturers advertise panels that can around the individual solar panels for air
withstand shading but they use internal diodes circulation. The idea is to allow air cooling in the
which in themselves reduce the power hot sun to reduce the temperature of the solar
somewhat. I recommend simply choosing a good panels. Another consideration is wind loading. By
location to start with, even if it means cutting allowing air to flow around the solar panels, not
down a few trees or otherwise removing only will they remain cooler,
obstacles.
In all systems there are losses due to such things as voltage losses as the electricity is
carried across the wires, batteries and inverters not being 100 percent efficient, and other
factors. These efficiency losses vary from component to component, and from system to
system and can be as high as 25 percent.
A charge controller monitors the battery's state- Many charge controllers also offer Low Voltage
of-charge to insure that when the battery needs Disconnect (LVD) and Battery Temperature
charge-current it gets it, and also insures the Compensation (BTC) as an optional feature. The
battery isn't over-charged. Connecting a solar LVD feature permits connecting loads to the LVD
panel to a battery without a regulator seriously terminals which are then voltage sensitive. If the
risks damaging the battery and potentially battery voltage drops too far the loads are
causing a safety concern. disconnected - preventing
potential damage to both the battery and the
Charge controllers (or often called charge loads. BTC adjusts the charge rate based on the
regulator) are rated based on the amount of temperature of the battery since batteries are
amperage they can process from a solar array. If sensitive to
a controller is rated at 20 amps it means that you temperature variations above and below about
can connect up to 20 amps of solar panel output 75 F degrees.
current to this one controller. The most advanced
charge controllers utilize a charging principal
referred to as Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) - To Load Switched
which insures the most efficient battery charging
and extends the life of the battery.
+ - +
This tutorial explains the importance of
monitoring your solar energy system. With the
included voltage chart, you can easily determine
the basic level of charge on your batteries using
just a simple voltmeter. Taking proper care of
your batteries will ensure good system
performance
7
This tutorial is a little more advanced, but
explains more about voltage, current, power, and
Ohm's Law. Find out about the relationship
between AC amps and DC amps. The
importance of energy conservation for a solar
power system is also covered.
|
% % !
( / ) / )+
!
1
Without batteries to store energy you would only have power when
the sun was shining or the generator was running. This tutorial The next 3 types are the heavier industrial type batteries.
describes the 4 basic types of batteries & provides some good tips They are all also considered Deep Cycle and are usually Lead
on the care & feeding of your batteries tomaximize their performance Acid types with much thicker internal plates that can withstand
and life. many deep discharge cycles. These next 3 are all designed for
alternative energy systems.
1) RV / Marine / Golf Cart : RV or Marine type deep cycle batteries 2) Flooded types : These are Lead acid batteries that have caps to add
are basically for boats & campers and are suitable for only very water. Many manufacturers make these types for Solar Energy use.
small systems. They can be used but do not really have the capacity Trojan, Surrette, and Deka are probably the most well known. They are
for continous service with many charge/discharge cycles for many reasonably priced and work well for many years. All flooded batteries
years. Regular or Car type batteries should not be used at all release gas when charged and should not be used indoors. If installed
because they cannot be discharged very much without internal in an enclosure, a venting system should be used to vent out the gases
damage. A very popular battery for small systems is the Golf Cart which can be explosive.
battery.
3) Gel : Not to be confused with maintenance free batteries, sealed gel
They are somewhat more expensive than deep cycle recreational batteries have no vents and will not release gas during the charging
batteries but are probably the least expensive choice for a small process like flooded batteries do. Venting is therefore not required and
system on a budget. they can be used indoors. This is a big advantage because it allows the
batteries to maintain a more constant temperature and perform better.
They are more expensive, but you usually get what you pay for. You
will find this type of battery used in airplanes, hospitals, and remote
telephone/cell tower installations.
(
As a technician, I used to say that if you are not comfortable,
then neither is your equipment. I was mostly referring to
temperature and humidity. In fact battery capacity ratings are
usually specified at 77 degrees F. As batteries get colder
their voltage drops and performance suffers.
The top row represents the Wire gauge size, the left
column the number of amps the solar panels are rated at,
and the grid cells show the distances in feet between the
Solar Panels and the Charge Controller.
% J5
4 55#; 28#2 3;#6 <J#8 J48 J64 525 5<5 28< 483
8 J3#5 54#5 26#8 8J#J <;#4 J55 J33 J<3 548 2J
6 JJ#4 J6#5 56#< 43#6 ;2#J <J#6 JJ8 J48 J64 522
J <#JJ4#3 52#J 28#; 36#4 ;2#3 <5#6 JJ; J46 J68
J5 ;#8J5#J J<#2 2 #8 46#; 8J#5 ;;#2 <;#4 J52 J33
J4 8#3J #4 J8#3 58#5 4J#; 35#3 88#2 62#3 J 3 J22
J8 3#; <#J J4#3 55#< 28#3 43#< 36# ;2# <5# JJ8
J6 3#J 6#J J5#< 5 #4 25#3 4 #6 3J#8 84#< 6J#< J 2
5 4#8 ;#2 JJ#8 J6#2 5<#5 28#; 48#4 36#4 ;2#6 <2#J
53 2#8 3#6 <#2 J4#; 52#4 5<#4 2;#J 48#6 3<#J ;4#3
2 2#J 4#6 ;#; J5#5 J<#3 54#3 2 #< 26#< 4<#5 85#J
23 5#8 4#5 8#8 J #3 J8#; 5 #< 58#3 22#4 45#5 32#5
4 5#2 2#8 3#6 <#5 J4#8 J6#4 52#5 5<#5 28#< 48#3
If you have 3 solar panels rated at 6 amps each, mounted 30 feet from the Charge Controller, then you would move down the
chart to 18 amps (3 panels * 6 amps), and across to 32.5 (closest to 30), and then up the chart to #4. You would need at
least #4 gauge wire (awg) to move 18 amps 30 feet with a minimum voltage drop of 3% or less, an acceptable loss. If you
can't find the exact numbers, choose either a larger gauge wire (smaller number) or select a distance longer than your actual
distance.
An inverter is a device which changes DC power stored Motors and power supplies usually run warmer and less
in a battery to standard 120/240 VAC electricity (also efficiently on mod-sine wave power. Some things, like
referred to as 110/220). Most solar power systems fans, amplifiers, and cheap fluorescent lights, give off an
generate DC current which is stored in batteries. audible buzz on modified sine wave power. However,
modified sine wave inverters make the conversion from
DC to AC very efficiently. They are relatively
Nearly all lighting, appliances, motors, etc., are designed inexpensive, and many of the electrical devices we use
to use ac power, so it takes an inverter to make the every day work fine on them.
switch from battery-stored DC to standard power (120
VAC, 60 Hz).
Sine wave inverters can virtually operate anything. Your
utility company provides sine wave power, so a sine
In an inverter, direct current (DC) is switched back and wave inverter is equal to or even better than utility
forth to produce alternating current (AC). Then it is supplied power. A sine wave inverter can "clean up"
transformed, filtered, stepped, etc. to get it to an
acceptable output waveform. The more processing, the utility or generator supplied power because of its internal
cleaner and quieter the output, but the lower the processing. Inverters are made with various internal
efficiency of the conversion. The goal becomes to features and many permit external equipment interface.
produce a waveform that is acceptable to all loads Common internal features are internal battery chargers
without sacrificing too much power into the conversion which can rapidly charge batteries when an AC source
process. such as a generator or utility power is connected to the
inverter's INPUT terminals. Auto-transfer switching is
also a common internal feature which enables switching
Inverters come in two basic output designs - sine wave from either one AC source to another and/or from utility
and modified sine wave. Most 120VAC devices can use power to inverter power for designated loads.
the modified sine wave, but there are some notable
exceptions. Devices such as laser printers which use
triacs and/or silicon controlled rectifiers are damaged Battery temperature compensation, internal relays to
when provided mod-sine wave power. control loads, automatic remote generator starting /
stopping and many other programmable features are
available. Most inverters produce 120VAC, but can be
equipped with a step-up transformer to produce
120/240VAC. Some inverters can be series or parallel
"stacked-interfaced" to produce 120/240VAC or to
increase the available amperage.
*KWh
3#4C
2#5C
%% %% $ + ! ( 9$%%
!
5 ; =G
## 5 ; $
D D E E F
World 127.9 2,130 2,258 662.3 7,178 7,841 2.5±11.2 800±2,902 0±59.3
Japan[29][27] 1.562 208.8 210.4 90.15 1,829 1,919 15 2.96 1,200±1,600 Ended(2005)
United States 55 151.5 206.5 325 505.5 830.5 2.8 2.98 900±2,150[28] 1.2±31.04(CA)
Spain] 22 490 512 29.8 625.2 655 15.1 3.0±4.5 1,600±2,200 18.38±44.04
Italy 0.3 69.9 70.2 13.1 107.1 120.2 2.1 3.2±3.6 1,400±2,200 36.0±49.0
Australia 5.91 6.28 12.19 66.45 16.04 82.49 4.1 4.5±5.4 1,450±2,902[33] 0±26.4(SA'08)
South Korea 0 42.87 42.87 5.943 71.66 77.60 1.6 3.50±3.84 1,500±1,600 56.5±59.3
France 0.993 30.31 31.30 22.55 52.68 75.23 1.2 3.2±5.1 1,100±2,000 30.0±55.0
Netherland 0.582 1.023 1.605 5.3 48 53.3 3.3 3.3±4.5 1,000±1,200 1.21±9.7
Switzerland 0.2 6.3 6.5 3.6 32.6 36.2 4.9 3.18±3.30 1,200±2,000 9.53±50.8
Austria 0.055 2.061 2.116 3.224 24.48 27.70 3.4 3.6±4.3 1,200±2,000 >0
Canada[ 3.888 1.403 5.291 22.86 2.911 25.78 0.8 3.76 900±1,750 0±29.48(ON)
Mexico] 0.869 0.15 1.019 20.45 0.3 20.75 0.2 5.44±6.42 1,700±2,600 None
United Kingdom 0.16 3.65 3.81 1.47 16.62 18.09 0.3 3.67±5.72 900±1,300 0±11.74(exprt)
Norway 0.32 0.004 0.324 7.86 0.132 7.992 1.7 11.2 800±950 None
Sweden 0.271 1.121 1.392 4.566 1.676 6.242 0.7 3.24±7.02 900±1,050 None
Denmark 0.05 0.125 0.175 0.385 2.69 3.075 0.6 5.36±8.04 900±1,100 None
Israel 0.5 0 0.5 1.794 0.025 1.819 0.3 4.3 2,200±2,400 13.13±16.40
The energy payback time is the time required to produce an amount of energy as great as what was
consumed during production. The energy payback time is determined from a life cycle analysis of
energy.
Another key indicator of environmental performance, tightly related to the energy payback time, is
the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment.
This ratio is called the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI). Of course, little is gained if it
takes as much energy to produce the modules as they produce in their lifetimes.
This should not be confused with the economic return on investment, which varies according to local
energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques. Life-cycle analyses show that the
energy intensity of typical solar photovoltaic technologies is rapidly evolving. In 2000 the energy
payback time was estimated as 8 to 11 years[75], but more recent studies suggest that technological
progress has reduced this to 1.5 to 3.5 years for crystalline silicon PV systems
Thin film technologies now have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1.5 years (S.EuropeWith
lifetimes of such systems of at least 30 years, the EROEI is in the range of 10 to 30.
They thus generate enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times (6-31
reproductions, the EROEI is a bit lower) depending on what type of material, balance of system (or
BOS), and the geographic location of the system.
Paisa per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency,
assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the
total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation.
$ column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak
kilowatt. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness
of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.
can be mounted at an angle based on latitude, which can add to total energy output.[65] Solar tracking can also be
utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table
reflect the total cost in Paisa per kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1%
operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years).
54 55 5 J6 J8 J4 J5 J 6
H H H
! ! ! H! H! H! H! H! H!
10000 Rs/kWp 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5
30000 Rs/kWp 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.0 7.5
50000 Rs/kWp 4.2 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.1 8.3 10.0 12.5
70000 Rs/kWp 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.8 8.8 10.0 11.7 14.0 17.5
90000 Rs/kWp 7.5 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.3 12.9 15.0 18.0 22.5
110000 Rs/kWp 9.2 10.0 11.0 12.2 13.8 15.7 18.3 22.0 27.5
130000 Rs/kWp 10.8 11.8 13.0 14.4 16.3 18.6 21.7 26.0 32.5
150000 Rs/kWp 12.5 13.6 15.0 16.7 18.8 21.4 25.0 30.0 37.5
170000 Rs/kWp 14.2 15.5 17.0 18.9 21.3 24.3 28.3 34.0 42.5
190000 Rs/kWp 15.8 17.3 19.0 21.1 23.8 27.1 31.7 38.0 47.5
210000 Rs/kWp 17.5 19.1 21.0 23.3 26.3 30.0 35.0 42.0 52.5
230000 Rs/kWp 19.2 20.9 23.0 25.6 28.8 32.9 38.3 46.0 57.5
250000 Rs/kWp 20.8 22.7 25.0 27.8 31.3 35.7 41.7 50.0 62.5
Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful
emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount
of pollution. This is often referred to as the energy input to output ratio. In some
analysis, if the energy input to produce it is higher than the output it produces it
can be considered environmentally more harmful than beneficial.
Also, placement of photovoltaics affects the environment. If they are located where
photosynthesizing plants would normally grow, they simply substitute one
potentially renewable resource (biomass) for another
It should be noted, however, that the biomass cycle converts áolar radiation
energy to electrical energy (plants make electricity? check again) with significantly
less efficiency than photovoltaic cells alone. And if they are placed on the sides of
buildings (such as in Manchester) or fences, or rooftops (as long as plants would
not normally be placed there), or in the desert they are purely additive to the
renewable power base.
Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are now in the range of 25-32 g/kWh and
this could decrease to 15 g/kWh in the future
For comparison, a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400 g/kWh
and a coal-fired power plant 915 g/kWh and with carbon capture and storage
some 200 g/kWh.
Only nuclear power and wind are better, emitting 6-25 g/kWh and 11 g/kWh on
average. Using renewable energy sources in manufacturing and transportation
would further drop photovoltaic emissions.
One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in cadmium
telluride solar cells (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmium in
its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in
ecological food chains.
Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and
natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh. Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic
panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from
burning coal, cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing
process could be entirely eliminated
1. Cost may not cover lifespan savings unless a preferential feed-in tariff is offered
by the grid network. But this depends on location and energy prices.
2. Solar electricity is often initially more expensive than electricity generated by other
sources.
3. Solar electricity is not available at night and is less available in cloudy weather
conditions from conventional silicon based technologies. Therefore, a storage or
complementary power system is required. However, the use of germanium in
amorphous silicon-germanium thin film solar cells provides residual power
generating capacity at night due to background infrared radiation.
4. Limited power density: Average daily insolation in the contiguous U.S. is 3-7 and
on average lower in Europe.
5. Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC (using a grid tie inverter)
when used in currently existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 4-
12%.
1. The 89 petawatts of sunlight reaching the earth's surface is plentiful - almost 6,000
times more than the 15 terawatts of average power consumed by humans.
Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of
170 W/m²) among renewable energies.
2. Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are
manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are
under development.
3. Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
5. When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost
electricity during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid
loading, and can eliminate the need for local battery power for use in times of
darkness and high local demand; such application is encouraged by net metering.
Time-of-use net metering can be highly favorable to small photovoltaic systems.
7. Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent,
operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
8. Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research-money has
been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is much room for
improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already have
efficiencies of over 40% and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass production
costs are rapidly falling.