Circulation and Gas Exchange: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 42
Circulation and Gas

Exchange
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: Trading with the Environment
• Every organism must exchange materials with

its environment
– And this exchange ultimately occurs at the
cellular level

• In unicellular organisms
– These exchanges occur directly with the
environment
• For most of the cells making up multicellular

organisms
– Direct exchange with the environment is not
possible

• The feathery gills projecting from a salmon
– Are an example of a specialized exchange
system found in animals
Figure 42.1
• Concept 42.1: Circulatory systems reflect
phylogeny
• Transport systems
– Functionally connect the organs of exchange
with the body cells

• Most complex animals have internal transport
systems
– That circulate fluid, providing a lifeline between
the aqueous environment of living cells and the
exchange organs, such as lungs, that exchange
chemicals with the outside environment

Invertebrate Circulation
• The wide range of invertebrate body size and
form
– Is paralleled by a great diversity in circulatory
systems

Gastrovascular Cavities
• Simple animals, such as cnidarians
– Have a body wall only two cells thick that
encloses a gastrovascular cavity
• The gastrovascular cavity

– Functions in both digestion and distribution of
substances throughout the body

• Some cnidarians, such as jellies
– Have elaborate gastrovascular cavities
Circular
canal
Radial canal
Mouth
5 cm
Figure 42.2

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
• More complex animals
– Have one of two types of circulatory systems:
open or closed
• Both of these types of systems have three

basic components
– A circulatory fluid (blood)
– A set of tubes (blood vessels)
– A muscular pump (the heart)

• In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs
– Blood bathes the organs directly in an open
circulatory system
Heart
Hemolymph in sinuses
surrounding ograns
Anterior Lateral Ostia

vessel vessels
Tubular heart
Figure 42.3a (a) An open circulatory system

• In a closed circulatory system
– Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct
from the interstitial fluid
Heart
Interstitial Small branch vessels

fluid in each organ
Dorsal vessel
(main heart)
Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels
Figure 42.3b (b) A closed circulatory system

• Closed systems
– Are more efficient at transporting circulatory
fluids to tissues and cells

Survey of Vertebrate Circulation
• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed
circulatory system
– Often called the cardiovascular system
• Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system

– Consisting of blood vessels and a two- to four-
chambered heart

• Arteries carry blood to capillaries
– The sites of chemical exchange between the
blood and interstitial fluid
• Veins
– Return blood from capillaries to the heart

Fishes
• A fish heart has two main chambers
– One ventricle and one atrium
• Blood pumped from the ventricle

– Travels to the gills, where it picks up O2 and
disposes of CO2

Amphibians
• Frogs and other amphibians
– Have a three-chambered heart, with two atria
and one ventricle
• The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery

– That splits the ventricle’s output into the
pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic
circuit

Reptiles (Except Birds)
• Reptiles have double circulation
– With a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a
systemic circuit
• Turtles, snakes, and lizards

– Have a three-chambered heart

Mammals and Birds
• In all mammals and birds
– The ventricle is completely divided into
separate right and left chambers
• The left side of the heart pumps and receives

only oxygen-rich blood
– While the right side receives and pumps only
oxygen-poor blood

• A powerful four-chambered heart
– Was an essential adaptation of the
endothermic way of life characteristic of
mammals and birds

• Vertebrate circulatory systems
FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS) MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Gill capillaries Lung and skin capillaries Lung capillaries Lung capillaries
Artery Pulmocutaneous Right Pulmonary Pulmonary

Gill
circuit systemic circuit circuit
circulation
aorta
Heart:
ventricle (V) Left
A A A A A
A Systemic
Atrium (A) V V aorta
V V V
Right Left Right Left Right Left
Systemic Systemic Systemic
Vein circulation circuit circuit
Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries

Figure 42.4
• Concept 42.2: Double circulation in mammals
depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of
the heart
• The structure and function of the human
circulatory system
– Can serve as a model for exploring
mammalian circulation in general

Mammalian Circulation: The Pathway
• Heart valves
– Dictate a one-way flow of blood through the
heart

• Blood begins its flow
– With the right ventricle pumping blood to the
lungs
• In the lungs
– The blood loads O2 and unloads CO2

• Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
– Enters the heart at the left atrium and is
pumped to the body tissues by the left ventricle
• Blood returns to the heart

– Through the right atrium

• The mammalian cardiovascular system
7
Capillaries of
Anterior
head and
vena cava
forelimbs
Pulmonary
Aorta Pulmonary
9 artery
artery
6
Capillaries
of right lung Capillaries
2 of left lung
3 4
3
11
Pulmonary
vein Pulmonary
5 Left atrium vein
1
Right atrium 10
Left ventricle
Right ventricle Aorta
Posterior
vena cava Capillaries of
abdominal organs
8 and hind limbs
Figure 42.5
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look
• A closer look at the mammalian heart
– Provides a better understanding of how double
circulation works
Pulmonary artery Aorta
Pulmonary
Anterior vena cava artery
Right atrium Left

atrium
Pulmonary Pulmonary
veins veins
Semilunar Semilunar
valve valve
Atrioventricular
Atrioventricular valve
valve
Posterior
vena cava Right ventricle
Figure 42.6 Left ventricle

• The heart contracts and relaxes
– In a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle
• The contraction, or pumping, phase of the

cycle
– Is called systole
• The relaxation, or filling, phase of the cycle

– Is called diastole

• The cardiac cycle
Semilunar 2 Atrial systole;
valves ventricular
closed diastole
0.1 sec
Semilunar
valves
0.3 sec open
0.4 sec
AV valves
open
AV valves
1 Atrial and closed
ventricular
diastole 3 Ventricular systole;
atrial diastole
Figure 42.7
• The heart rate, also called the pulse
– Is the number of beats per minute
• The cardiac output

– Is the volume of blood pumped into the
systemic circulation per minute

Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
• Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable
– Meaning they contract without any signal from
the nervous system

• A region of the heart called the sinoatrial (SA)
node, or pacemaker
– Sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac
muscle cells contract
• Impulses from the SA node

– Travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node
• At the AV node, the impulses are delayed

– And then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make
the ventricles contract
• The impulses that travel during the cardiac
cycle
– Can be recorded as an electrocardiogram
(ECG or EKG)

• The control of heart rhythm
1 Pacemaker generates 2 Signals are delayed 3 Signals pass 4 Signals spread
wave of signals at AV node. to heart apex. Throughout
to contract. ventricles.
AV node Bundle
SA node branches
(pacemaker)
Heart Purkinje
apex fibers
ECG
Figure 42.8

• The pacemaker is influenced by
– Nerves, hormones, body temperature, and
exercise

• Concept 42.3: Physical principles govern blood
circulation
• The same physical principles that govern the
movement of water in plumbing systems
– Also influence the functioning of animal
circulatory systems

Blood Vessel Structure and Function
• The “infrastructure” of the circulatory system
– Is its network of blood vessels

• All blood vessels
– Are built of similar tissues
– Have three similar layers

Artery Vein
Basement
membrane
Endothelium 100 µm
Valve
Endothelium Endothelium
Smooth Smooth
muscle muscle
Capillary
Connective
Connective
tissue
tissue
Artery Vein
Venule
Figure 42.9 Arteriole

• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and
capillaries
– Correlate with their different functions
• Arteries have thicker walls

– To accommodate the high pressure of blood
pumped from the heart

• In the thinner-walled veins
– Blood flows back to the heart mainly as a
result of muscle action
Direction of blood flow
in vein (toward heart)
Valve (open)
Skeletal muscle
Valve (closed)
Figure 42.10

Blood Flow Velocity
• Physical laws governing the movement of fluids
through pipes
– Influence blood flow and blood pressure

• The velocity of blood flow varies in the
circulatory system
– And is slowest in the capillary beds as a result of the
high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
5,000
4,000
Area (cm2)
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Velocity (cm/sec) 50
40
30
20
10
0
Pressure (mm Hg)
120
100 Systolic
80 pressure
60
40 Diastolic
20 pressure
0
Capillaries
Veins
Aorta
Arteries
Venules
Venae cavae
Arterioles
Figure 42.11
Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure
– Is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts
against the wall of a vessel

• Systolic pressure
– Is the pressure in the arteries during
ventricular systole
– Is the highest pressure in the arteries
• Diastolic pressure
– Is the pressure in the arteries during diastole
– Is lower than systolic pressure

• Blood pressure
– Can be easily measured in humans
1 A typical blood pressure reading for a 20-year-old 4 The cuff is loosened further until the blood flows freely
is 120/70. The units for these numbers are mm of through the artery and the sounds below the cuff
mercury (Hg); a blood pressure of 120 is a force that disappear. The pressure at this point is the diastolic
can support a column of mercury 120 mm high. pressure remaining in the artery when the heart is relaxed.
Blood pressure
reading: 120/70
Pressure Pressure Pressure

in cuff in cuff in cuff
above 120 below 120 below 70
Rubber cuff
inflated 120 120
with air
70
Sounds
Sounds stop
audible in
stethoscope
Artery
Artery
closed
2 A sphygmomanometer, an inflatable cuff attached to a 3 A stethoscope is used to listen for sounds of blood flow
pressure gauge, measures blood pressure in an artery. below the cuff. If the artery is closed, there is no pulse
The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated below the cuff. The cuff is gradually deflated until blood
until the pressure closes the artery, so that no blood begins to flow into the forearm, and sounds from blood
flows past the cuff. When this occurs, the pressure pulsing into the artery below the cuff can be heard with
exerted by the cuff exceeds the pressure in the artery. the stethoscope. This occurs when the blood pressure
is greater than the pressure exerted by the cuff. The
pressure at this point is the systolic pressure.
Figure 42.12
• Blood pressure is determined partly by cardiac
output
– And partly by peripheral resistance due to
variable constriction of the arterioles

Capillary Function
• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to
capacity
– But in many other sites, the blood supply
varies

• Two mechanisms
– Regulate the distribution of blood in capillary
beds
• In one mechanism
– Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the
wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel

• In a second mechanism
– Precapillary sphincters control the flow of
blood between arterioles and venules
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare
channel
(a) Sphincters relaxed

Arteriole Venule
Capillaries
(b) Sphincters contracted

Arteriole Venule
(c) Capillaries and larger vessels (SEM)
Figure 42.13 a–c 20 µm

• The critical exchange of substances between
the blood and interstitial fluid
– Takes place across the thin endothelial walls
of the capillaries

• The difference between blood pressure and
osmotic pressure
– Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole
end and into capillaries at the venule end
Tissue cell INTERSTITIAL FLUID
Net fluid Net fluid

Capillary movement out movement in
Capillary Red
15 µm
blood
cell
At the venule end of a capillary,
blood pressure is less than
At the arterial end of a Direction of osmotic pressure, and fluid flows
capillary, blood pressure is blood flow from the interstitial fluid into the
greater than osmotic pressure, capillary.
and fluid flows out of the
Blood pressure
capillary into the interstitial fluid.
Osmotic pressure
Pressure
Inward flow
Outward flow
Arterial end of capillary Venule end

Figure 42.14
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system
– Returns fluid to the body from the capillary
beds
– Aids in body defense

• Fluid reenters the circulation
– Directly at the venous end of the capillary bed
and indirectly through the lymphatic system

• Concept 42.4: Blood is a connective tissue with
cells suspended in plasma
• Blood in the circulatory systems of vertebrates
– Is a specialized connective tissue

Blood Composition and Function
• Blood consists of several kinds of cells
– Suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma
• The cellular elements

– Occupy about 45% of the volume of blood

Plasma
• Blood plasma is about 90% water
• Among its many solutes are

– Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions,
sometimes referred to as electrolytes

• The composition of mammalian plasma
Plasma 55%
Constituent Major functions
Water Solvent for

carrying other
substances
Icons (blood electrolytes
Sodium Osmotic balance
Potassium pH buffering, and Separated
Calcium regulation of blood
Magnesium membrane elements
Chloride permeability
Bicarbonate
Plasma proteins
Albumin Osmotic balance,
pH buffering
Fibringen Clotting
Immunoglobulins Defense
(antibodies)
Substances transported by blood

Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism
Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Hormones Figure 42.15

• Another important class of solutes is the
plasma proteins
– Which influence blood pH, osmotic pressure,
and viscosity
• Various types of plasma proteins

– Function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood
clotting

Cellular Elements
• Suspended in blood plasma are two classes of
cells
– Red blood cells, which transport oxygen
– White blood cells, which function in defense
• A third cellular element, platelets

– Are fragments of cells that are involved in
clotting

• The cellular elements of mammalian blood
Cellular elements 45%
Cell type Number Functions
per µL (mm3) of blood
Erythrocytes
(red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport oxygen
and help transport
carbon dioxide
Separated
blood
elements Leukocytes 5,000–10,000 Defense and
(white blood cells) immunity
Basophil Lymphocyte
Eosinophil
Neutrophil
Monocyte
Platelets 250,000− Blood clotting
400,000
Figure 42.15

Erythrocytes
• Red blood cells, or erythrocytes
– Are by far the most numerous blood cells
– Transport oxygen throughout the body

Leukocytes
• The blood contains five major types of white
blood cells, or leukocytes
– Monocytes, neutrophils, basophils,
eosinophils, and lymphocytes, which function
in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and
debris or by producing antibodies

Platelets
• Platelets function in blood clotting

Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements
• The cellular elements of blood wear out
– And are replaced constantly throughout a
person’s life

• Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all
develop from a common source
– A single population of cells called pluripotent
stem cells in the red marrow of bones
Pluripotent stem cells
(in bone marrow)
Lymphoid
stem cells Myeloid
stem cells
Basophils
B cells T cells
Lymphocytes
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Erythrocytes
Platelets Monocytes
Figure 42.16
Blood Clotting
• When the endothelium of a blood vessel is
damaged
– The clotting mechanism begins

• A cascade of complex reactions
– Converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
1 The clotting process begins 2 The platelets form a 3 This seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin when
when the endothelium of a plug that provides vessel damage is severe. Fibrin is formed via a
vessel is damaged, exposing emergency protection multistep process: Clotting factors released from
connective tissue in the against blood loss. the clumped platelets or damaged cells mix with
vessel wall to blood. Platelets clotting factors in the plasma, forming an
adhere to collagen fibers in activation cascade that converts a plasma protein
the connective tissue and called prothrombin to its active form, thrombin.
release a substance that Thrombin itself is an enzyme that catalyzes the
makes nearby platelets sticky. final step of the clotting process, the conversion of
fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of fibrin become
interwoven into a patch (see colorized SEM).
Collagen fibers
Platelet Fibrin clot
Red blood cell
Platelet releases chemicals plug
that make nearby platelets sticky
Clotting factors from:

Platelets
Damaged cells
Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrin
Figure 42.17 Fibrinogen
5 µm

Cardiovascular Disease
• Cardiovascular diseases
– Are disorders of the heart and the blood
vessels
– Account for more than half the deaths in the
United States

• One type of cardiovascular disease,
atherosclerosis
– Is caused by the buildup of cholesterol within arteries
Connective Smooth muscle
tissue Endothelium Plaque
(a) Normal artery (b) Partly clogged artery

50 µm 250 µm
Figure 42.18a, b
• Hypertension, or high blood pressure
– Promotes atherosclerosis and increases the
risk of heart attack and stroke
• A heart attack
– Is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting
from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
• A stroke
– Is the death of nervous tissue in the brain,
usually resulting from rupture or blockage of
arteries in the head
• Concept 42.5: Gas exchange occurs across
specialized respiratory surfaces
• Gas exchange
– Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and
disposes of carbon dioxide
Respiratory O2 CO2
medium Respiratory
(air of water) surface
Organismal
level
Circulatory system
Cellular level
Energy-rich
molecules Cellular respiration ATP
from food
Figure 42.19
• Animals require large, moist respiratory
surfaces for the adequate diffusion of
respiratory gases
– Between their cells and the respiratory
medium, either air or water

Gills in Aquatic Animals
• Gills are outfoldings of the body surface
– Specialized for gas exchange

• In some invertebrates
– The gills have a simple shape and are
distributed over much of the body
(a) Sea star. The gills of a sea
star are simple tubular
projections of the skin.
The hollow core of each gill
is an extension of the coelom
(body cavity). Gas exchange
occurs by diffusion across the
gill surfaces, and fluid in the
coelom circulates in and out of
the gills, aiding gas transport.
The surfaces of a sea star’s
tube feet also function in
gas exchange.
Gills
Coelom
Figure 42.20a
Tube foot

• Many segmented worms have flaplike gills
– That extend from each segment of their body
(b) Marine worm. Many
polychaetes (marine
worms of the phylum
Annelida) have a pair
of flattened appendages
called parapodia on
each body segment. The
parapodia serve as gills
and also function in
crawling and swimming.
Parapodia
Figure 42.20b
Gill

• The gills of clams, crayfish, and many other
animals
– Are restricted to a local body region
(c) Scallop. The gills of a (d) Crayfish. Crayfish and
scallop are long, other crustaceans
flattened plates have long, feathery
that project from the gills covered by the
main body mass exoskeleton. Specialized
inside the hard shell. body appendages
Cilia on the gills drive water over
circulate water around the gill surfaces.
the gill surfaces.
Gills
Gills
Figure 42.20c, d

• The effectiveness of gas exchange in some
gills, including those of fishes
– Is increased by ventilation and countercurrent
flow of blood and water
Oxygen-poor
blood
Gill arch
Oxygen-rich
Lamella
blood
Blood
vessel
Gill
arch %
% 15
40
5%
70
%
30
Water
0%
%
60
10
flow Operculum
%
90
O2 Blood flow
Water flow through capillaries
over lamellae in lamellae
showing % O2 showing % O2
Figure 42.21
Gill
filaments Countercurrent exchange

Tracheal Systems in Insects
• The tracheal system of insects
– Consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate
the body
Air sacs
Tracheae
Spiracle
(a) The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched internal

tubes that deliver air directly to body cells. Rings of chitin reinforce
the largest tubes, called tracheae, keeping them from collapsing.
Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs that require
a large supply of oxygen. Air enters the tracheae through openings
called spiracles on the insect’s body surface and passes into smaller
tubes called tracheoles. The tracheoles are closed and contain fluid
(blue-gray). When the animal is active and is using more O2, most of
the fluid is withdrawn into the body. This increases the surface area Figure 42.22a
of air in contact with cells.
• The tracheal tubes
– Supply O2 directly to body cells
Body
cell
Air
Tracheole sac
Trachea
Air Body wall

Tracheoles Myofibrils
Mitochondria
(b) This micrograph shows cross

sections of tracheoles in a tiny
piece of insect flight muscle (TEM).
Each of the numerous mitochondria
in the muscle cells lies within about
5 µm of a tracheole.
Figure 42.22b 2.5 µm

Lungs
• Spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial
vertebrates
– Have internal lungs

Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look
• A system of branching ducts
– Conveys air to the lungs
Branch Branch
from the from the
pulmonary pulmonary
vein artery
(oxygen-rich (oxygen-poor
blood) blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Left
Larynx lung Alveoli
50 µm
Esophagus
Trachea
Right lung
50 µm
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
Heart SEM Colorized SEM
Figure 42.23
• In mammals, air inhaled through the nostrils
– Passes through the pharynx into the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and dead-end alveoli,
where gas exchange occurs

• Concept 42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs
• The process that ventilates the lungs is

breathing
– The alternate inhalation and exhalation of air

How an Amphibian Breathes
• An amphibian such as a frog
– Ventilates its lungs by positive pressure
breathing, which forces air down the trachea

How a Mammal Breathes
• Mammals ventilate their lungs
– By negative pressure breathing, which pulls air
into the lungs
Rib cage
expands as Rib cage gets
rib muscles Air inhaled smaller as Air exhaled
contract rib muscles
relax
Lung
Diaphragm
INHALATION EXHALATION
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
(moves down) (moves up)
Figure 42.24
• Lung volume increases
– As the rib muscles and diaphragm contract

How a Bird Breathes
• Besides lungs, bird have eight or nine air sacs
– That function as bellows that keep air flowing
through the lungs
Air Air
Anterior
air sacs
Trachea
Lungs Lungs
Posterior
air sacs
Air tubes
(parabronchi)
1 mm
in lung
INHALATION EXHALATION
Air sacs fill Air sacs empty; lungs fill
Figure 42.25
• Air passes through the lungs
– In one direction only
• Every exhalation
– Completely renews the air in the lungs

Control of Breathing in Humans
• The main breathing control centers
– Are located in two regions of the brain, the
medulla oblongata and the pons
Cerebrospinal
fluid 4 The medulla’s control center
1 The control center in the
also helps regulate blood CO2 level.
medulla sets the basic
rhythm, and a control center Sensors in the medulla detect changes
in the pons moderates it, in the pH (reflecting CO2 concentration)
smoothing out the of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid
transitions between bathing the surface of the brain.
inhalations and exhalations.
5 Nerve impulses relay changes in
CO2 and O2 concentrations. Other
Pons sensors in the walls of the aorta
Breathing and carotid arteries in the neck
2 Nerve impulses trigger detect changes in blood pH and
muscle contraction. Nerves control
centers send nerve impulses to the medulla.
from a breathing control center Medulla
In response, the medulla’s breathing
in the medulla oblongata of the oblongata
control center alters the rate and
brain send impulses to the
depth of breathing, increasing both
diaphragm and rib muscles,
to dispose of excess CO2 or decreasing
stimulating them to contract
both if CO2 levels are depressed.
and causing inhalation.
Carotid
arteries
Aorta
3 In a person at rest, these
nerve impulses result in
about 10 to 14 inhalations
6 The sensors in the aorta and
per minute. Between carotid arteries also detect changes
inhalations, the muscles in O2 levels in the blood and signal
Figure 42.26 relax and the person exhales. Diaphragm
the medulla to increase the breathing
Rib muscles rate when levels become very low.

• The centers in the medulla
– Regulate the rate and depth of breathing in
response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal
fluid
• The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth

– To match metabolic demands

• Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries
– Monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in the
blood
– Exert secondary control over breathing

• Concept 42.7: Respiratory pigments bind and
transport gases
• The metabolic demands of many organisms
– Require that the blood transport large
quantities of O2 and CO2

The Role of Partial Pressure Gradients
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients
– In the lungs and other organs
• Diffusion of a gas
– Depends on differences in a quantity called
partial pressure

• A gas always diffuses from a region of higher
partial pressure
– To a region of lower partial pressure

• In the lungs and in the tissues
– O2 and CO2 diffuse from where their partial
pressures are higher to where they are lower

Inhaled air Exhaled air
120 27
160 0.2 Alveolar spaces
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Alveolar 104 40
O2 CO2
epithelial
cells
CO2 O2 2
Blood Blood
1 leaving
entering
alveolar O2 alveolar
2
CO
capillaries capillaries
Alveolar
40 45 104 40
O2 CO2 capillaries O2 CO2
of lung
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries veins
Systemic
Systemic arteries
veins Heart
Tissue
O2
CO2 capillaries
3
Blood 4 Blood
leaving entering
tissue tissue
capillaries capillaries
40 45 CO2 O2 100 40
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Tissue
cells
Figure 42.27 <40 >45
O2 CO2

Respiratory Pigments
• Respiratory pigments
– Are proteins that transport oxygen
– Greatly increase the amount of oxygen that

blood can carry

Oxygen Transport
• The respiratory pigment of almost all
vertebrates
– Is the protein hemoglobin, contained in the
erythrocytes

• Like all respiratory pigments
– Hemoglobin must reversibly bind O2, loading
O2 in the lungs and unloading it in other parts
of the body
Heme group Iron atom
O2 loaded
O2
in lungs
O2 unloaded
In tissues O2
Figure 42.28 Polypeptide chain

• Loading and unloading of O2
– Depend on cooperation between the subunits
of the hemoglobin molecule
• The binding of O2 to one subunit induces the

other subunits to bind O2 with more affinity

• Cooperative O2 binding and release
– Is evident in the dissociation curve for
hemoglobin
• A drop in pH
– Lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for O2

(a) PO2 and Hemoglobin Dissociation at 37°C and pH 7.4 O2 unloaded from
100
O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)

hemoglobin
during normal
80 metabolism
O2 reserve that can

60 be unloaded from
hemoglobin to
tissues with high
40 metabolism
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Tissues during Tissues Lungs

exercise at rest
PO2 (mm Hg)
(b) pH and Hemoglobin Dissociation 100
O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)

pH 7.4
80
Bohr shift:
60 Additional O2
released from
40 pH 7.2 hemoglobin at
lower pH
(higher CO2
20 concentration)
Figure 42.29a, b 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PO2 (mm Hg)

Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Hemoglobin also helps transport CO2
– And assists in buffering

• Carbon from respiring cells
– Diffuses into the blood plasma and then into
erythrocytes and is ultimately released in the
lungs

Tissue cell
1 Carbon dioxide produced by CO2 produced
CO2 transport
from tissues
7 Most of the HCO3– diffuse
body tissues diffuses into the into the plasma where it is
interstitial fluid and the plasma. Interstitial CO2 carried in the bloodstream to
fluid
the lungs.
2 Over 90% of the CO2 diffuses Blood plasma CO2
1
Capillary
into red blood cells, leaving only 7% within capillary
wall 8 In the HCO3– diffuse
in the plasma as dissolved CO2. 2
from the plasma red blood cells,
CO2
3
H2 O
4 combining with H+ released from
3 Some CO2 is picked up and Red H2CO3
Hemoglobin hemoglobin and forming H2CO3.
blood picks up
transported by hemoglobin. cell
Carbonic acid Hb
CO2 and H+
6
5
HCO3– + H+ 9 Carbonic acid is converted back
Bicarbonate
4 However, most CO2 reacts with water into CO2 and water.
HCO3– 7
in red blood cells, forming carbonic To lungs
acid (H2CO3), a reaction catalyzed by 10 CO2 formed from H2CO3 is unloaded

CO2 transport
carbonic anhydrase contained. Within HCO3– to lungs from hemoglobin and diffuses into the
red blood cells. 8 interstitial fluid.
HCO3– + H+
11 CO2 diffuses into the alveolar
5 Carbonic acid dissociates into a Hemoglobin space, from which it is expelled
biocarbonate ion (HCO3–) and a H2CO3 Hb releases during exhalation. The reduction
CO2 and H+
hydrogen ion (H+). 9 of CO2 concentration in the plasma
H2 O
CO2 drives the breakdown of H2CO3
Into CO2 and water in the red blood
6 Hemoglobin binds most of the cells (see step 9), a reversal of the
CO2
H+ from H2CO3 preventing the H+ reaction that occurs in the tissues
from acidifying the blood and thus CO2 10 (see step 4).
preventing the Bohr shift.
CO2 11
Figure 42.30 Alveolar space in lung

Elite Animal Athletes
• Migratory and diving mammals
– Have evolutionary adaptations that allow them
to perform extraordinary feats

The Ultimate Endurance Runner
• The extreme O2 consumption of the antelope-
like pronghorn
– Underlies its ability to run at high speed over
long distances
Figure 42.31

Diving Mammals
• Deep-diving air breathers
– Stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly

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Chapter 42

Circulation and Gas

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

• Every organism must exchange materials with

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• For most of the cells making up multicellular

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• The gastrovascular cavity

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• Both of these types of systems have three

– A set of tubes (blood vessels)

– A muscular pump (the heart)

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Anterior Lateral Ostia

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Interstitial Small branch vessels

Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels

Figure 42.3b (b) A closed circulatory system

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• Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system

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• Blood pumped from the ventricle

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• The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery

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• Turtles, snakes, and lizards

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• The left side of the heart pumps and receives

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FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS) MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Artery Pulmocutaneous Right Pulmonary Pulmonary

Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries

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• Blood returns to the heart

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Right atrium Left

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• The contraction, or pumping, phase of the

• The relaxation, or filling, phase of the cycle

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• The cardiac output

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• Impulses from the SA node

• At the AV node, the impulses are delayed

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– Have three similar layers

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