INTRODUCTION

     It has been said that the study of bricks is the study of
civilization.  Bricks made of mud and straw have been used for
thousands of years.  Some bricks over 10,000 years old have been
discovered.  One of the first building materials created by man,
bricks are still a highly desired choice to this day.  Some of
the newest homes and modern buildings use bricks in their
construction.  The simple brick has maintained its reputation as
a superior building product longer than perhaps any other
product in the modern world. 
Plain mud bricks like the ones pictured on the left are called 'adobe ' or
sometimes 'slump bricks.'   Examples of adobe bricks have survived throughout
history and are found in many ancient buildings.  Adobe was used in the
ziggurat temples of Mesopotamia and by the
emperors of ancient
Rome. Since trees were scarce in the Old
Southwest, the American
Indians
and the pioneer settlers
alike chose adobe brick as the logical
Adobe bricks are made from a mixture
materialoffor
mudbuildings
and small
.
pieces of straw or
Adobe bricks are still used in certain parts reeds. The bricks are formed by
hand and left in the sun to dryof. the
Butworld
theretoday
is a.
problem with plain mud bricks.  Over time, rain water
will dissolve them and cause them to crumble and break
apart.
Early brick makers eventually learned that if they would "burn" the
bricks by baking them in a very hot oven called a kiln, the bricks
would become very hard and durable. 
1 .   MINING .   The first step is called mining or
" winning " the clayThe
. original color of clay does little to indicate
the color of the finished brick.  The color of a
finished brick is generally determined by how much
iron mineral is in the clay.  Clay with a high
iron content will produce a deep red brick after
firing.  Clay with less iron produces a buff or
light brown colored brick. 
     The early brick makers relied on their own
experience when they chose their clay.  They chose
it primarily
color and texture. They didn't by it's
have the use of sophisticated laboratories to
analyze the clay back then.  Because the steam shovel was not invented until
1879, early brick makers had to dig for the clay with hand shovels. They
obviously wanted to find their clay just under the topsoil in order to
minimize much of the hard digging.  
The digging was usually done in the autumn.  That way, the clay could
be left exposed to the freeze-thaw cycles of the coming winter.  A
cycle is a series of events that happen over and over again. The
freezing and thawing over and over again would help break down the
clay.  That made the clay softer and easier to
work by hand in the Spring. 
     The winter exposure not only made the clay soft but also
removed unwanted oxides.  Oxides are minerals that have
combined with oxygen and are considered undesirable
impurities in brick making.
 2 .   PREPARATION .   The second step is
preparation of the clay

By spring the clay was suitable to be

worked by hand. It was sometimes ground into
a powder and sifted through a screen to
remove stones.   Sometimes the clay was
placed into a soaking pit where it was
mixed with water to obtain the proper
consistency for molding.  Next, the clay was
kneaded with the hands and feet to mix all
the elements together. This step was called
tempering or pugging and was the hardest
work of all. In the mid-1800's horse driven
(above) were invented to make this
pugtask
mills
easier.  Pug mills are still used  today, but
of course they are now powered by huge
electric motors instead of horses. 
     The clay was then removed from the
soaking pit or pug mill by a temperer who
carried it to the molding table to begin the
next step in the process.
 3 .   MOLDING .   The third step is molding .
The assistant brick molder was called the clot molder.   That job was to
prepare a lump of clay (a clot) and give it to the brick molder.
     The brick molder was the key to the operation and the head of the
team. He or she would stand and work at the molding table for twelve to
fourteen hours a day.  With the help of the assistants, a brick molder
could make 3,500 to 5,000 bricks in a day. They would take the clot of clay,
roll it in sand and "dash" it (toss it forcefully) into a mold .   A mold is
a wooden frame that is the shape of a brick. The clay was then pressed
into the mold with the hands. The excess clay was scraped from the top of
the mold with a flat stick called a strike that had been soaking in water.
This excess clay was returned to the clot molder to be reformed into later
bricks.
Single, double, four, or six cavity brick molds were
used.  Making
one brick at a time had an advantage since even a child
could
carry a single brick to the drying area. Beech wood was
the
was often laminated
preferred material for(covered by a thin
constructing layerbecause
the mold ) with iron
it to prevent wear.
The
was mold was also coated each time with sand so the bricks would slide
out easilythat
believed .  These typeswould
the clay of bricks are "to
not stick sand
it.struck bricks
The top of ."
     The next person on the team was called the off-bearer. There it
the mold
would be placed on a level bed of sand.  The off-bearer would remove the
brick from the mold, stack the brick to dry, then return the empty mold to
the brick molding table.  At the molding table he or she would wet the
mold and coat it again with sand.  It was now ready for the brick molder
to form the next brick.
 4 .   DRYING .   The fourth step is drying .

The bricks were left stacked in the

drying area for a few days.  After
about two days they were turned
over.  This was done to facilitate
uniform drying and to prevent
warping. During this time tools
called dressers or clappers were
used to straighten any crooked
bricks and to obtain a smooth
surface. 
After about four days in dry, hot weather    
the
bricks were sufficiently hard to allow them to
be stacked on end.   A finger's width space was
left between each one to allow air to flow
between them.  This helped them dry faster. The
stacking area was called a hack or a
hackstead.   The bricks were covered by a roof
or with straw to protect them from the rain or
harsh sun.  After about two weeks the bricks
were ready to be fired.
 Firing
 Simply heating bricks by placing them in an  open fire is not sufficient for firing bricks.  They would not get hot
enough.  In order to obtain the required temperature they must be baked in a kiln.  Since early brick making
usually took place  on the site where the clay was mined, a kiln had to be constructed each time a batch of
bricks was made.  If fired bricks were left over from a previous batch, they were used to construct the outer
walls of the next kiln.  The surface was daubed (sealed by smearing over the cracks) with mud to help hold in
the heat.
      If no previously fired bricks were available, the kiln was constructed entirely of green bricks.  Green bricks are
raw, unbaked bricks.  The bricks were stacked in such a way that they acted as their own kiln. Wood and coal
were used for fuel.
 When the steam gases finally cleared it was the signal to increase the intensity of the fires. If this was done too
early, steam would form inside the bricks and cause them to explode.  The brick shown below on an old
school house in Leesville, Indiana is an example of this condition.   This brick was fired too green and the
internal gasses caused it to burst open.

 Intense fires were maintained in the fire holes around the clock for about a week. It took that long to reach the
required temperature of around 1,850 degrees F.
      Reaching the correct temperature was very important.  When a brick reaches the correct temperature it
begins to 'vitrify.'  Vitrification happens when sand and other materials in clay melt and fuse together. This
changes the clay into a glass-like material. 
      Properly fired bricks are very strong in compression strength.  Compression is the squeezing force on a
material.  In the case of bricks, most of the compression force comes from their own weight on top of each
other.  Bricks that do not get hot enough during firing are weak in compression strength and will crumble
under load.  Bricks that become too hot will become too glass-like and brittle.  The trick for the early brick
maker was to get them just right.  The correct temperature was just at the point when the vitrification
process began.
 • Types of bricks
• There are literally thousands of different bricks , but they
• can be broken down into a handful of basic types . The vast
• majority are made from clay and are kiln - Facing Bricks
• Quality , durable bricks with an attractive appearance for
• external use above ground .
• Wirecut
• The clay is continuously extruded to a
• required size and shaope and then cut into
• individual bricks by means of a wire , much
• like a cheese is cut by cheesewire .
• Thousands of variations in colour and
• texture . Usually the cheapest facings
• available as the manufacturing process is
• highly automated .
• Stock
• The clay is wetted to a so - called " soft mud "
• and then moulded to shape , before being
• allowed to dry prior to firing in the kiln .
• Much of the process is automated . Tend to
• be slightly irregular in shape . Usually a bit
• more expensive than wirecuts .
• fired
 Fletton
Also known as 'London Bricks' . A unique facing
brick manufactured from the Lower Oxford clay
found only in SE England . This clay contains
coal traces , which burn during firing , reducing
the amount of fuel needed for the kiln , which
not only keeps down costs but also produces
some interesting effects in the bricks
themselves . Commons
A cheap 'fill' brick , designed to be
utilitarian rather than attractive .
Having said that , some have a charm
of their own and are perfectly fine
for smaller job .
Engineering
The workhorses of the brick family . Tough , strong ,
hardwearing but not usually very pretty . They have
excellent resistance to frost and to water , making
them ideal for groundworks , sewer works and
retaining walls . You pay for the performance .
Concrete or Calcium Silicate
Popular in areas where good brick - making clay
is scarce . Some are , quite frankly , bloody awful ,
but others may be split - faced or have a pitched
face to give an impression of being something
other than boring concrete . Cheap and cheerful
sums them up .
 Concrete or Calcium Silicate
Popular in areas where good brick - making clay
is scarce . Some are , quite frankly , bloody awful ,
but others may be split - faced or have a pitched
face to give an impression of being something
other than boring concrete . Cheap and cheerful
sums them up .

Reclaimed
Salvaged bricks . Bricks rescued from old buildings
and cleaned up , of a fashion . You really have to
know what you're looking for to make sure you get
decent quality rather than any old dross , so buy
through a reputable merchant . Their charm is
undeniable , when laid by a good brick , but there
can be a high level of wastage . Many will be the
old Imperial sizes ( 2 5 / 8 " or 3 ") which are
incompatible with the modern metric bricks ( 65mm ).
Sorting them is a labour intensive task and they
can cost twice the price of a quality facing or a
'reproduction' reclaimed .
Specials
Any brick that isn't a rectangle . Just to confuse
non - bricklayers , there are " standard specials ",
such as bullnoses , cants and radials , and " special
specials " such as cills and quoins . These specials
allow fantastic design possibilities .
 • Other Walling Products
• As well as bricks , there are all sorts of concrete blocks that can be used to build walls and
• other structures . Some are decorative ; some are utilitarian ; some are insulating ; some are
• for use below ground ... whatever the application , there'll be a concrete block that's suitable .
• For hard - landscape wall building , the
• decorative concrete blocks are the most
• popular type of walling block . Many of these
• attempt to replicate natural stone , to
• varying degrees of success . They tend to be
• produced in differing lengths and depths to
• further enhance the look of coursed walling
• stone , with 'jumper blocks' spanning 2 or
• more courses .
• Some walling blocks aren't mortared
• together in the usual way , but use a special
• cement - based adhesive to 'glue' the blocks
• and copings together . These products are
• primarily aimed at garden construction and
• the DIY market , and can only be used for
• walls up to around 1 metre in height . The
• walling shown opposite is 'Ryedale Walling'
• Plain concrete blocks can be used when a wall is to be rendered and / or painted ; trench
• blocks are a good and cost - saving choice for foundation courses and 'Thermalite' blocks can
• be easily shaped with a Surform to all sorts of weird and wonderful forms .
•
 Stretcher: This is a brick laid with its length parallel to th
face or front or direction of a wall. The course containing
stretchers is called a stretcher course.

Header: This is a brick laid with its breadth or width parallel

to the face or front or direction of a wall. The course
containing headers is called a header course.
Arrises: the edges formed by the intersection of plane surfaces of bricks are
called the arrises and they should be sharp, square and free from damage.
Bed: The lower surface of the brick when laid flat is known as
bed.

Bed joint: The horizontal layer of mortar upon which the bricks are laid is
known as aThe
Perpends: bedvertical
joint. joints separating the bricks in either length or cross
directions are known as the perpends and for a good bond, the perpends in
alternate courses should be vertically one above the other.
Lap: The horizontal distance between the vertical joints in successive courses
is termed as a lap and for a good bond, it should be one-fourth of the length
Closer: A piece of brick which is used to close up the bond at the end of
brick courses is known as a closer and it helps in preventing joints of
successive courses to come in a vertical line. Generally the closer is not
specially moulded. But it is prepared by the mason with the edge of the trowel.
Following are the types of closers:
i) Queen closer: This is obtained by cutting the brick
longitudinally in two parts. It can also be made from two
quarter bricks, known as the quarter closers, to minimize the
wastage of bricks. A queen closer is generally placed near the
quoin header to obtain the necessary lap.
ii) King closer: This is obtained by cutting a triangular
portion of the brick such that half a header and half a
stretcher are obtained on the adjoining cut faces. A king
closer is used near door and window openings to get
satisfactory arrangement of the mortar joints.
iii) Bevelled closer: This is obtained by cutting a triangular
portion of half the width but of full length. A bevelled closer
appears as a closer on one face and as a header at the other
face. It is used for the splayed brickwork.
iv) Mitred closer: This is obtained by cutting a triangular
portion of the brick through its width and making an angle of
45 to 60 with the length of the brick. It is used at corners,
junctions, etc.
Bat: This is a piece of brick, usually considered in relation to the length of
a brick and accordingly known as half bat or three- quarter bat. A bevelled bat
may be formed as shown in the figure.

Bullnose: A brick moulded with a rounded angle is termed as a bullnose and it

is used for a rounded quion. A connection which is formed when a wall takes a
turn is known as a quoin. The centre of the curved portion is situated on the
long centre-line of the brick.
Cownose: A brick moulded with a double bullnose on end is termed as a cownose.

Squint quoin: A brick which is cut or moulded such that an angle other than a
right angle is formed in plan is known as a squint quoin.

Frog: A frog is a mark of depth about 10 mm to 20 mm which is placed on the

face of a brick to form a key for holding the mortar. The wire cut bricks are
not provided with frogs. A pressed brick as a rule has frogs on both the faces.
A hand-made brick has only one frog.
Racking back: The termination of a wall in a stepped fashion is known as the
racking
Toothing:back
The. termination of a wall in such a fashion that each alternate
course at the end projects is known as the toothing and it is adopted to
provide adequate bond, when the wall is continued horizontally at a later
stage.
Types of brick masonry
i)Brickwork in mud: In this type of brickwork, the mud is used to fill up the
joints. The mud is prepared by intimately mixing sand with clay. The thickness
of the mortar joints is 12mm. This type of brickwork is adopted in case of
the cheapest construction and the maximum height upto which a wall can be
constructed in this type of brickwork is 4 m.

ii) Brickwork in c.m. or l.m. I class: In this type of brickwork, cement or lime
motar is used. The bricks are table-moulded and of standard shape and they
are burnt in kilns. The surfaces and edges of the bricks are sharp, square and
straight. They comply with all the requirements of a good standard brick. The
thickness of the mortar joint does not exceed 10 mm.

iii) Brickwork in c.m. or l.m. II class: The bricks to be used in this type of
brickwork are moulded on ground and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of
these bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. The
bricks may have hair cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform.
These bricks are commonly used at places where the brickwork is to be
provided with a coat of plaster. The thickness of mortar joints is 12mm.

iv) Brickwork in c.m. or l.m. III class: This type of brickwork is same as II
class except that bricks to be used are burnt in clamps. These bricks are
not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges.
These bricks give dull sound when struck together. They are used for
unimportant and temporary structures and at places where the rainfall is not
heavy.
• Brick Format
• Modern metric bricks in the UK are sized to
• create a modular format. The standard brick
• size is 215 × 102.5 × 65mm (face × bed ×
• end), so, with a standard 10mm wide joint, this
• gives a working size of 225mm × 75mm.
• Terminology
• Pointing Styles
• Pointing ensures the bed joints and perpends are properly
• filled with mortar. Pointing is usually undertaken an hour or
• so after the bricks have been laid, long enough for the mortar
• to stiffen but not so long that it has become unworkable. The
• unpointed joints can be topped up with fresh mortar if they
• are not quite full, before tooling to the required style.
• The most common pointing styles are shown opposite. The
• Weatherstruck and Flush profiles are formed with the blade
• of a trowel. The Bucket Handle profile is formed with a semicircular
• section jointing bar, and the Recess profile is created
• with a joint raker.
• Tooled joints, notably the Weatherstruck and Bucket Handle,
• offer better resistance to rain penetration.
 • Bricklaying
• The most critical consideration when designing a freestanding wall is to make sure that
• it is adequate to resist severe gusts of wind.
• Bricklaying is a skilled trade that takes many years to master . Bricks are laid in
courses , on
• a bed of mortar , with a taut string lineused as a guide to line and level . The
horizontal joint
• is the " bed joint "; the vertical joints are " perpends ".
• The ends of walls are built first , with the
• level and verticality of the bricks checked
• repeatedly as the corners / ends are raised .
• The gauging is also checked , to ensure that
• 4 courses measures 300mm .
• The bed mortar is laid out and shaped to accept the bricks . The end of the brick to be
laid is
• buttered with mortar and then shoved against the preceding brick , squeezing the mortar
to
• a width of 10mm . At the completion of each course , the guide line is
• moved up to the next course .
• There are over 30 different brickwork bonds that can be used .
• With solid or perforated bricks , the orientation of the brick
• doesn't matter , but with frogged bricks , the frog should
• always be laid uppermost . This ensures that the loading of
• the wall is evenly spread across its width , rather than being
• concentrated onto the edges , and that there are no voids
• within the brickwork that could be weak spots .
•
Bonds in brickwork:
The bricks being of uniform size can be arranged conveniently in a variety of
forms. Some of the rules to be observed for getting a good bond are as follows:
1) The amount of lap should be minimum one-fourth brick along the
length of the wall and one-half brick across the thickness of the wall.
2) The bricks should be of uniform size to get uniform lap.
3) The stretchers should be used in the facing. The hearting should be
carried out with headers only.
4) The use of brickbats should be discouraged except under special
circumstances.
5) The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along the
same perpend.

The various types of bonds with their patented names have been
constructed. Following are the types of bonds in brickwork:
1)Stretcher bond
2)Header bond
3)English bond
4)Flemish bond
5)Garden-wall bond
 1) Stretcher bond
In this type of bond, all the bricks are arranged in
the stretcher courses as shown in the figure.
The figure shows the elevation of a wall with the
Fig 4-11 stretcher bond. The stretcher bond is useful for one-
brick partition walls as there are no headers in such
walls. As this bond does not develop proper internal
bond, it should not be used for walls having
thicknesses greater than that of one-brick wall.

2) Header bond
In this type of bond, all the bricks are arranged in
the header courses. The figure shows the elevation of
a wall with the header course. The overlap is usually
kept equal to half the width of brick and it is
achieved by using three-quarter brickbats in each
alternate courses as quoins. This bond does not have
strength to transmit pressure in the direction of the
Fig 4-12 length of the wall. Hence it is not suitable for the
load bearing walls. However this bond is used for
curved surfaces in brickwork because stretchers, if
used for curved surfaces, would project beyond the
face of the wall.
3) English bond

This type of bond is usually used in practice. It is considered as the

strongest bond in brickwork. Following are the features of the English bond:
1The alternate courses consists of stretchers and headers.
2The queen closer is put next to the quoin header to develop the face lap.
3Each alternate header is centrally supported over a stretcher.
4If the wall thickness is an even multiple of half-brick, the same course shows
headers or stretchers in both the front and the back elevations. But if the
wall thickness is an uneven multiple of half-brick, a course showing
stretcher on the face shows header on the back and vice versa.
5The bricks in the same course do not break joints with each other. The joints
are straight.
6In this bond, the continuous vertical joints are not formed except at certain
stopped ends.
7The number of mortar joints in the header course is nearly double than that
in the stretcher course. Hence care should be taken to make the header
joints thinner; otherwise the face lap disappears quickly.
8A header course should never start with a queen closer as it is liable to get
displaced in this position.
9The queen closers are not required in the stretcher courses.
10In the stretcher course, the stretchers have a minimum lap of one-fourth of
their length over the headers.
11For walls having thickness of two bricks or more, the bricks are laid as
stretchers or headers only on the face courses of the wall. The interior
filling is done entirely with the headers.
English bonds diagram ..
4) Flemish bond
In this type of bond, the headers are distributed
evenly and hence, it creates a better appearance
Front elevation
than the English bond.
Following are the peculiarities of the Flemish
bond:
1In every course, the headers and the
stretchers are placed alternatively.
1The queen closer is put next to the quoin header in alternate courses to develo
the face lap.
2Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.
3The Flemish bond may be divided into two groups:
*Double Flemish bond *Single Flemish bond
5The bricks in the same course do not break joints with each other. The joints a
straight.
6In this bond, the short continuous vertical joints are formed.
7The brickbats are to be used for walls having thickness equal to uneven number
of half-brick.

Comparison of Flemish bond and English bond:

1The English bond is found to possess more strength than the Flemish bond for
walls having thickness greater than one-half-bricks.
2The Flemish bond grants more pleasing appearance than the English bond.
3It is possible to make use of broken bricks in the form of brickbats in case of
the Flemish bond. However more mortar will be required.
4The construction of the Flemish bond requires greater skill as compared to the
English bond.
*Double Flemish bond
The headers and stretchers are placed alternatively in front as
well as the back elevations. For this type of bonds, the half bats and the
three-quarter bats will have to be used for walls having thickness equal to
odd number of half bricks. For walls of thickness equal to even number of
half bricks, no bats will be required and a stretcher or a header will come
out as a stretcher or as a header in the same course in front as well as
back elevations. This bond gives better appearance than the English bond.
But it is not so strong as the English bond as it contains more number of
stretchers.

Fig 4-17 pg(140)

fig 4-18 pg(141)
*single Flemish bond
The face elevation is of the Flemish bond and the filling as well as
the backing are of the English bond. Thus, in this type of bond, an attempt is
made to combine the strength of the English bond with the appearance of the
Flemish bond. This type of bond is used when expensive bricks are used for the
face work. But in order to construct this bond, a wall of minimum thickness
one-half-bricks is required.

Fig 4-19 pg(142)

fig 4-20 pg(142)
5) Garden-wall bond
This type of bond as the name suggests, is used for the construction of the
boundary walls, compound walls, garden walls, etc. the wall is one-brick wall and
its height does not increase two meters. The wall may be constructed either in
the English bond or the Flemish bond as shown in the figures respectively.

In the English garden wall bond, one

header course is provided to three or five
stretcher courses. the quoin headers are
placed in alternate courses and the quoin Fig 4-21
closer is placed next to the quoin header
in a header course to develop the
necessary lap.
In the Flemish garden wall bond, each
course contains one header to three or five
stretchers. A three-fourth brickbat is
placed next to quoin header in every
alternate course to develop the necessary
lap. A header is placed centrally over each
middle stretcher. This type of bond is also Fig 4-22 Fig 4-23
known as the Scotch bond or Sussex bond.
If in the Flemish garden wall bond, each
course contains one header to two
stretchers, it is known as the monk bond
and in this bond, the header rests over the
joint between two successive stretchers as
shown in the figure.
6 ) Raking bond
As the filling of thicker walls is done by headers only, such walls become
weak in the longitudinal direction. The raking or inclined bonds are used in
such cases, as remedial measures.

Following points should be noted:

i) In raking bonds, the courses are inclined.

ii) The raking or inclination should be in opposite direction in alternate
courses of the raking bond.
iii) The successive courses of the raking bonds should not be provided.
Generally a course with raking bond is provided at regular interval of four to
eight courses in the height of a wall.
iv) The raking bond should be provided in the stretcher courses of a wall
having thickness equal to even number of half-brick. This arrangement makes a
raking bond more effective.

The three types of raking bonds are

Diagonal bond *Herring-bone bond *Zigzag bond


Diagonal bond
In diagonal bond the bricks are laid diagonally.
Fig 4-24 The angle of inclination is so selected that there
is minimum breaking of the bricks. The triangular
pieces of bricks required near the sides are cut
to shape. This bond is useful for bonds having
thickness of 2 to 4 bricks. It is used for the
construction of the footings of the high walls.
Herring-bone bond
In herring-bone bond, the bricks are laid at an
Fig 4-25 angle of 45 from the centre in both the
directions. This bond is useful for walls having
thickness of more than four bricks. It is also
used for ornamental finish to the face work and
for making ornamental panels in the flooring of
bricks.
Zigzag bond

Fig 4-26 In zigzag bond, the bricks are laid in a

zigzag fashion. It is commonly used for making
ornamental panels in the flooring of bricks.
 7) Dutch bond
This is a modified form of the English bond and by
this bond, the corner of the wall is strengthened.
The elevation of a wall with Dutch bond is shown in
the figure. The peculiarities of this bond are as
Fig 4-27 follows:
1The alternate courses are of headers and
stretchers.
2The quoin of a stretcher course is a three-quarter
bat.
3A header is introduced next to the three-quarter
bat in every alternate stretcher course.
4
8)Brick on-edge bond
In this type of bond, the bricks are laid on edge
instead of bed. This bond is economical as it
consumes less number of bricks and less number of
bricks and less quantity of mortar. It is however
not strong and hence it is used for the
construction of garden walls, compound walls,
Fig 4-28 partition walls, etc.
In this bond, the bricks are laid as headers and
stretchers in alternate courses in such a way
that the headers are laid on the bed and the
stretchers are laid on edge. Thus a continuous
cavity is formed as shown in the figure. This bond
is also referred to as the silvercock’s bond.
 9) English cross bond
This is another modified form of the English bond
and it is used to add beauty in the appearance of
the wall. The elevation of the wall with English
cross bond is shown in the figure. It is also
known as the St. Andrews cross bond.
Fig 4-29 The peculiarities of this bond is as follows:
1The alternate courses are of the headers and
stretchers.
2The queen closers are placed next to the quoin
headers.
3A header is introduced next to the quoin
stretcher in every alternate stretcher course.
10) Facing bond
In this type of bond, a header course is placed
after several stretcher courses. It is used under
the following circumstances:
1If the facing and backing bricks vary in size
and shape, the facing bond is adopted. The
least common multiple of the thickness of
Search in McKay.. facing and backing bricks decides the distance
=) between the successive header courses.
2If the facing bricks are expensive and if it is
desired to economize, the facing bond is
adopted. A header course is placed after every
three or five stretcher courses.
It is found that the facing bond is not
structurally good and hence the distribution
of load is not uniform.
Bonds at connections:
The walls in different directions are to be united at certain places. These
places are known as the connections. The three requirements to be satisfied
by bond at a connection are:
1)The vertical joints should not be continuous.
2)The number of broken bricks to be used should be reduced to a minimum.
3)The connection should be structurally strong enough to resist the
differential settlement, if any

There are two forms of such connections

I. Junctions
II. Quoins

I. Junctions:
a connection between a main wall and a partition wall is termed as
a junction. Following points should be kept in view while providing a
junction.
a) The header course of the cross wall enters the stretcher course
of the main wall.
b) The alternate courses of the cross wall are simply abutting the
main wall.
A junction is classified in two categories:
*Right-angled junction *Squint junction
II.
III. Quoins:
A connection which is formed when a wall takes a turn is known as a
quoin. There are two forms of quoins:
*Right-angled or square quoins *Squint quoins
Right-angled junction
This type of junction has two forms:
*Tee-junction *Cross-junction or intersection
Tee-junction: This type of right angled junction forms the shape of the English
letter T in plan.
Fig 4-30
The figure shows the plans of
alternate courses of a tee-junction
between one-brick external wall and
half-brick internal wall, both the
walls being constructed in the
English bond.
Fig 4-32
The figure shows the plans of
alternate courses of a tee-junction
between one-half-brick external and
internal walls, both the walls being
constructed in the English bond.
Fig 4-31
The figure shows the plans of
alternate courses of a tee-junction
between one-half-brick external wall
and one-brick internal wall, both the
walls being constructed in the
English bond.
Fig 4-33
The figure shows the plans of alternate
courses of a tee-junction between one-
half-brick external wall and one-brick
internal wall. The main wall is
constructed in the Double Flemish bond
and the internal wall being constructed
in the English bond.
Cross-junction or intersection
When two continuous walls cross or intersect each other, a cross-junction or an
intersection is formed as shown in the figures.

The first two figures shows the plans of alternate courses of a cross-
junction between 1 brick wall and 1 ½ bricks wall, both the walls being
constructed in the English bond.
The third and the fourth figure shows the plans of alternate courses of a
cross-junction between 1 ½ bricks walls which are constructed in the English
bond.
Following points should be noted:
a)The alternate courses of the cross walls i.e. the courses of one of the walls
simply butt against the courses of the other wall.
b)The alternate courses which are not continuous are provided with tie bricks
in the form of key headers to create the necessary bond and lap.
Squint junction
A squint junction is formed when two walls meet each other at an angle other
than a right angle without making a quoin. It may be in the English bond or
Flemish bond. The squint junction is however not common in brickwork and it is
rarely adopted because great difficulty is experienced in actually forming it
in practice.

Fig 4-36

The above figure shows the plans of alternate courses of a squint junction
between 1 brick wall and 1 ½ bricks wall, both the walls being constructed in
the English bond.

Fig 4-
37
The above figure sows the plans of alternate courses of a squint junction
between 1 ½ bricks wall which are connected in the English bond.
Right-angled or square quoins

As the term implies, this form of quoin is formed when two walls meet an angle
of 90.

Following are the points to be noted for the square quoins in the English
bond:

1At the same level, a header course on one face of the angle is converted into
a stretcher course on the other face of the angle.
2No vertical continuous joints are formed.
3At the inside corner of the back, a projection of a quarter brick is formed
in alternate layers. This projection is a header for walls having thickness
equal to even number of half-brick and it is a stretcher for walls having
thickness equal to odd number of half-brick.
4The transverse joint is continuous at the projection of quarter brick.
Following are the points to be noted for the square quoins in the Flemish
bond:

1In case of 1 brick wall and 1 ½ bricks wall, the course containing the queen
closer is continuous.
2The projection formed at the inside corner of back is a stretcher three-
fourth brick in length for 1 brick wall and 1 ½ bricks wall and it is a
header one-fourth brick in length for two bricks wall.
3The half bat introduced at the inside corner of back of two bricks wall is
necessary to avoid a long continuous vertical joint.
Squint Quoins
When a wall takes a turn and makes an angle other than a right-angle, a squint
quoin is formed. The three important forms to be looked after in this type of
construction are as follows:
1The continuous straight joints should be avoided.
2The maximum lap should be obtained with the minimum cutting of the bricks.
3The number of broken bricks to be used should be reduced to a minimum.

The squint quoins can be classified into two categories:

a) Acute squint: In this case, the enclosed angle on the inside of the wall is
less than a right-angle.

Acute squint in English bond Acute squint in Double Flemish bond

b) Obtuse squint: in this case, the enclosed angle on the inside of the wall is
between 90 and 180. the angle usually varies from 105 to 135, the more common
being 120.

Obtuse squint in English bond Obtuse squint in Double Flemish bond

• conclusion